Marketing theory and concepts Essay

Every business wither it’s small or big, aim to meet the needs of their actual and potential customers. In order for them to do this, they need to follow some sort of theory and concept. This assignment will be looking at the marketing theory and marketing concepts which are portrayed in the traditional marketing literature, and how they have limited application in guiding small business marketing practice. Marketing plays a vital role not only in developing, producing, and selling products or services, but also in guiding recruiting labors and raising capital. Although it can be said that successful entrepreneurs undertake marketing in unusual ways. They mainly rely on interactive marketing methods, which is often communicated through word-of-mouth rather than a more traditional marketing mix. Entrepreneurs monitor the marketplace through informal networks rather than formalised market research, and generally adopt more entrepreneurial approaches to marketing activities. However, depending on the business model, a complex and formalised initial market research can be crucial for a successful market entry. There are many marketing theories that are used in traditional marketing literature such as Schumpeter (1934) who said that entrepreneurs proactively ‘created’ opportunity, using ‘innovative combinations’ which often included ‘creative destruction’ of passive or lethargic economic markets. According to Schumpeter the role of an entrepreneur is to innovate, and by doing this, you move the economy from one equilibrium to another. This kind of innovation could come about from one or more introduction of a new product; a new method of production; the development of a new market; the use of new sources of raw material, and the reorganisation of a new industry or its processes. He also distinguished between the entrepreneur and the capitalist. Schumpeter agreed with the fact, that in practice an innovator could also actually be a capitalist. Another well-known theorist next to Schumpeter is Kirzner (1973) who said that entrepreneurs should have a sense of ‘alertness’ to identify the opportunities in the market and exploit them accordingly . He states ‘The  pure entrepreneur, on the other hand, proceeds by his alertness to discover and exploit situations in which he is able to sell for high prices that which he can buy for low prices. Pure entrepreneur profit is the difference between the two sets of prices. The discovery of a profit opportunity means the discovery of something obtainable for nothing at all. No investment at all is required; the free ten-dollar bill is discovered to be already within one is grasps’ (Kirzner, 1973, 48). The marketing concept has changed significantly over time. In today’s business world the customer is at the forefront, not all businesses in the past followed this concept, as they placed other factors first rather than their customers this is shown as follows:Production Oriented was the focus of the actual business and not the customer needs, as where this has now changed and we can see that it is more focused on customer needs. Production Orientation is when the company believe that they have a superior product, based on quality and features. Due to this thinking the company assume the customers will like it to. In today’s market the customers decide as to what product they like. Sales Orientation is the focus where the company makes a product or provides a service, and then sells or offers it to the target market. This causes problems, as consumers may not like what is being offered to them, which is why companies are making sure that they test their services out, to a small group of the target audience. Market Orientation concept has not actually changed over time, it puts the customers first, as the companies try to understand the needs of the customers by using appropriate research methods. These methods are then developed to make sure information from customers, are fed back to the company for them to see what the target audience are interested in . SMEs who may adapt the marketing concept or 4Ps do so fully rather than explicitly (Carson and Gilmore, 2000). Jaworski and Kohli, (1990) also commented on the limitations of the marketing concept (p15). Therefore, the  SME approach is characterized by networking with stakeholder’s awareness to customer needs (Gilmore, Carson and Grant, 2001; &Hill and Wright, 2001). Which is characterized by the size of these firms and their closeness to customers, (Gilmore, Carson, O’Donnell and Cummins, 1999) as well as inexpensive forms of marketing such as word of mouth (Gilmore 1999). It is vital for SMEs to set the 4Ps, target a market and position themselves, but how this is done and planned is an important issue as it helps guiding a small business to success. Differences between traditional market literature and variants produced during the 1960’s were mainly attributable to the addition of concepts popularized during that decade. For example, Cundiff and Still covered an analysis of the 4 P’s of marketing with the concept that marketing is a subsystem of business. (Cundiff, E.W., Still, R.R. 1976)The basic principles of marketing are generally applicable to large and small businesses. Marketing in SMEs has been recognized as a problematic area for researchers for over 20 years (Chaston and Mangles, 2002; Siu and Kirby, 1998). SME marketing in practice is considered to be mainly done though networking (Gilmore 2001) or a combination of transaction, relationship, interaction and network marketing (Brodie 1997). Recently the use of Internet marketing (Chaffey 2000) or e-commerce (Rayport and Jaworski, 2001) has become popular in all types of businesses including SMEs. Marketing in practice in small firms seem to rely mainly on personal contact networks (Hill and Wright, 2001; Gilmore 2001; Brodie 1997) and is often driven by the particular way a manager does business. According to Gilmore (2001) marketing in SMEs is likely to be chaotic, informal, loose, unstructured, spontaneous, and reactive and conform to industry norms. Gilmore (2001) showed that as a result of networking there was a high level of communication between the SME manager and their competitors then what is usually reported in the marketing literature as well as competing firms may be quite supportive of each other. Similarly, networking with customers usually involves building a relationship with one or two key individuals in those companies. If these individuals were to leave then the relationship the company would break (Gilmore 2001). SME owners must recognize that  building relationships are vital to a company’s success and they invest a considerable amount of time and effort in maintaining good relations with regular clients (Gilmore 2001). The foundation and existence of an effective networking is concerned with maximizing marketing opportunities and ensuring the enterprise’s survival and development (Gilmore 2001). Something, which is more important, in today’s world, is having a foot in the business market, which is constantly changing to meet customer needs. The tables have been turned on the fortunes of many long-established firms. It’s believed that a majority of firms that are in trouble, and those that have failed recently, have done so because they have been let down by their own marketing. Traditional marketing is now being turned. The ideas of marketing and branding strategy that passed for conventional wisdom before do not hold true today. A small but growing number of innovative firms have adopted completely new and differentiate approaches in marketing, reflecting a clear and unmistakable change in the global culture. In this era of globalisation and the Internet the consumer is behaving in a radically different way and is no longer vulnerable to the overworked ploys of marketing. The present times call for a new competition one that strays from the prescriptions that traditional marketing theory holds, that sometimes works in a way that it is counter to it and that lays focus on network-building and â€Å"pulling the customer† above all else. Many experienced hands in corporate boardrooms are oblivious to these shifting sands and evolving trends, and are paying the price as a result. In general the basic principles and concepts of marketing are as relevant to SMEs as it is to larger firms, but some theories, tools and techniques of marketing are not as relevant or useful to SMEs. The nature of SME marketing is the concept, which is mainly dominated by the inherent characteristics of the entrepreneur and the SME itself. Although not all small business may take the marketing theories and concepts in to consideration, while carrying out some sort of market research they will have come a across them. They may have limited application in today’s marketing world but they do provide the basis for which a business can start their research on which helps guiding them in to the marketing practice. Therefore marketing theories and Concepts  portrayed in the traditional marketing literature has limited application in guiding small business marketing practice although they give the business a rough base to start their market practice. Competition and Entrepreneurship, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and LondonCarson, D. and A. Gilmore, (2000), â€Å"Marketing at the Interface: Not ‘What’ But ‘How'†, Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, Vol. 8Kohli, A. K. and B. J. Jaworski, (1990), â€Å"The Construct, Research Propositions, and Managerial Implications†, Journal of Marketing,(Gilmore, Carson and Grant, 2001; &Hill and Wright, 2001). Gilmore, A., D. Carson and K. Grant (2001), â€Å"SME Marketing in Practice†, MarketingIntelligence and Planning, Vol. 19(Gilmore, Carson, O’Donnell and Cummins, 1999) â€Å"Added value: A QualitativeAssessment of SME Marketing†, Irish Marketing Review(Cundiff, E.W., Still, R.R. 1976), Fundamentals of Modern Marketing, 2nd ed.)Chaston, I and Mangles, T. (2002) â€Å"Small Business Marketing Management.†Siu, W. and Kirby, D.A. (1998) â€Å"Approaches to small firm marketing: A Critique.† European Journal o f Marketing, vol. 32, no. Brodie, R.J., Coviello, N.E., Brookes, R.W. and Little, V. (1997) â€Å"Towards a Paradigm Shiftin Marketing? An Examination of Current Marketing Practices.† Journal of Marketing Management,Chaffey, D., Mayer, R., Johnston, K. and Ellis-Chadwick, F. (2000) â€Å"Internet Marketing.† Prentice Hall, Harlow, EnglandRayport, J. F. and Jaworski, B. J. (2001) â€Å"e-Commerce.† McGraw-Hill, Boston, USA. Hill, J. and Wright, L. T. (2001) â€Å"A Qualitative Research Agenda for Small to Medium-sized Enterprises.† Marketing Intelligence and Planning,http://www.druid.dk/uploads/tx_picturedb/ds1998-9.pdfhttps://www.mises.org/journals/scholar/wood.pdfhttp://knight.fcu.edu.tw/~gunning/subjecti/workpape/kirz_ent.pdfBooksHandbook of Entrepreneurship Research and Interdisciplinary Survey and Introduction By: Zoltan J Acs, David B

Final Project

Final Project Part 2(Worth 20% of your grade) Student Name: James Keys Class/Section: CMIS 102 Professor Name: Jose Romero Assignment due date: 11/4/12 // Which State. cpp #include â€Å"stdafx. h† #include <iostream> #include <string> using namespace std; int main() { int x = 0; int found = 0; int count=0; float sum; float average; int age[10]; string name[10]; string Find_State = â€Å"†; string state[10]; string state_abbr[10]; bool okay = true; do { cout << â€Å"Enter the family member's name. Type ‘done' when complete. ;lt;;lt; endl; cin ;gt;;gt; name[count]; if ( name[count] == â€Å"DONE† || name[count]==†done†) { okay = false; break; } cout ;lt;;lt; â€Å"Enter family member's age† ;lt;;lt; endl; cin ;gt;;gt; age[count]; cout ;lt;;lt; â€Å"Which state is † ;lt;;lt; name[count] ;lt;;lt; † from? Type in CA, NY, TX, VA, VT? † ;lt;;lt; endl; cin ;gt;;gt; state[count]; if ( state[count] ==  "CA† || state[count] == â€Å"ca†) { state[count] = â€Å"California†; state_abbr[count] = â€Å"CA†; }else if (state[count]==†TX† || state[count] == â€Å"tx†) { state[count] = â€Å"Texas†; tate_abbr[count] = â€Å"TX†; } else if (state[count]==†VA† || state[count] == â€Å"va†) { state[count] = â€Å"Virginia†; state_abbr[count] = â€Å"VA†; } else if (state[count]==†NY† || state[count] == â€Å"ny†) { state[count] = â€Å"New York†; state_abbr[count] = â€Å"NY†; } else if (state[count]==†VT† || state[count] == â€Å"vt†) { state[count] = â€Å"Vermont†; state_abbr[count] = â€Å"VT†; } else { cout ;lt;;lt; â€Å"I don't understand!! † ;lt;;lt; endl; count–; } count++; } while (okay || count ! = 10); char yn=' ‘; do { cout << â€Å"Do you wish to list people living in a certain state? << en dl; cin >> yn; if ( yn == ‘Y') { cout << â€Å"Enter the state abbreviation : â€Å"; cin >> Find_State; for (x=0;x<count;x++) if (state_abbr[x] == Find_State) { cout << name[x] << † lives in † << state[x] << endl; found++; } if (! found) { cout << â€Å"Couldn't find anyone living in the state of † << Find_State << â€Å". † << endl; } } else if ( yn == ‘N') cout << â€Å"Okay, we'll continue on!! † << endl << endl; break; } while (yn ! ‘Y' || yn ! = ‘N'); sum = 0. 0; average = 0. 0; for ( x=0;x<count;x++) { sum = sum + age[x]; } average = sum/count; cout << endl << endl << â€Å"The average age of your family is † << average << † years old. † << endl << endl; cout << â€Å"The entered data was :† << endl << endl; for ( x=0; x < count ;x++) { cout << name[x] << † lives in † << state[x] << † and is † << age[x] << † years old. † << endl; } return 0;

Were respectable Victorians any more concerned about sex than their great grandparents had been?

Before one can answer the question above, two key terms need to be explained: ‘respectable' and ‘sex'. The Victorian climate was such that the term respectable is usually applied only to those members of society with sufficient status to be marked out as noticeable in a rural/urban setting. To this extent, it is perhaps more correct to realise that the question is aiming towards those Victorians of middle to high status than those of the middle and upper classes. More to the point, respectable may mean either those people of status, or those men of high status. Sex' is a term that carries two main connotations, intercourse and gender. Gender itself is a pretty wide ranging issue, covering the role of women in both social life and in the home, as well as increasing political activity from females. In effect, the question is somewhat multi-faceted, and requires a three-sided response: how far were men more aware of women's need and rights in the nineteenth century than in the eighteenth; how did the role of the female change between the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; and, how did general attitudes towards intercourse and women change in a broader sense? This final question invites a response on how sex was taught, or indeed practised, in the Victorian period. One can see a change in the nineteenth century towards a society that was more concerned with some aspects of sex, especially those carnal. As Michael Mason puts it, the sexual practices of the early nineteenth century experienced a ‘crisis of confidence'. Yet by mid-century, trends of concubinage and commitment meant that traditional (male) practices of prostitution were considerably displaced. As the attitudes of men changed towards a family environment, so did the role of women. Women became not only homemakers but also socially active people, rather than their traditional role of sitting in the background and looking pretty. Trends in literature towards such feminist authors as the Bronte sisters and Jane Austen, as well as strong feminist trends in some of Dickens' literature, were representative of a society considering the roles of women and bringing their rights to the fore. Trends also changed from the passive acceptance of wife beating towards an admittedly passive non-acceptance of such practices. In effect, there were many significant changes towards a society that accepted sex in all its forms far more than a century before, albeit in a more austere fashion. Firstly the question of the awareness of women needs to be addressed more fully. As trends of marriage changed towards a more family based atmosphere, so did the attitudes towards the Victorian woman. A female Queen, for whom the country held a significant respect, precipitated an almost passive acceptance of the female import in society. The Victorian man was, unlike his great grandparents, frowned upon for un- gentlemanly behaviour in the home. A change toward this acceptance of the female role was precursor to the increased role of the male in family life. As L Davidoff has claimed, men spent much more time at work but were also ‘in and out of the house place†¦ helping with the children†¦ taking part in the endless rounds of tea drinking and dropping in of relatives' By the 50s, men were leaving active business to spend more time with family and to allow younger family members to take over the day to day running of affairs, often women being allowed to do this. Men were effectively becoming absorbed into what was previously, and exclusively, the female way of life. Alongside this change was the acceptance of women into such societies as the Rainbow Circle, with some such as the Primrose League being set up for women alone. Thus women were not only allowed a political voice, but were actively taking one also. The ideas of station in the family may not have changed, but they were certainly evened out. As urbanisation increased, so did the acceptance of female by men. In eighteenth century rural England, the middle classes were small, and the sense of community amongst them sparse, with urbanisation came middle class community, which had the effect of introducing a social code by which everyone was socially obligated to abide. Certain trends towards females did not change however, domestics and governesses were still female, yet the number of affairs between the head of the household and his servants decreased rapidly, yet this may be representative more of the austere privacy of the Victorian household which would be reluctant to admit such activities than an actual fall in such indiscretions. In effect, the attitudes towards women changed. They changed in both the way women were treated, and in the assumption of traditional female roles in the household of men. Yet the Victorian woman was equally different from her eighteenth century counterpart. The Victorian woman was a changing force in society. Such occurrences as the Custody of Infants Act of 1839, and the later trend for educating girls at schools (both precipitated women) give evidence to the changing female character. The Custody of Infants Act in particular is representative of the power able to be exercised by Victorian women over their husbands. This Act, which crystallised after the legal battle fought by Caroline Norton to keep her children after separation from a violent husband. This not only shows that the female had a right to her children in equal capacity to her husband, but also that there was an ability for a woman to challenge a man in a court- a legal power not previously seen. It also is indicative of the new emphasis on motherhood, or more to the point, its importance over and above the importance of the male figure. F M L Thompson, maybe over enthusiastically, terms this change in early Victorian female culture a precursor to ‘female rebellion'. He doses have a point however, at the time many thinkers both on the left and right such as Peter Gaskell and Richard Oastler felt that the family and consequently the moral fabric of society was about to collapse due to an increased female role. Changing the emergence of the politically interested female of all classes and statuses complemented this emancipation. Organisations such as the Primrose League were representative of not only a new working/middle class political voice, but also of a female voice. In addition to the having a voice in the political world, and in society, as well as legal rights, the right to divorce was also important. The Divorce Act of 1857 allowed wives for the first time to divorce their violent husbands, which was an important factor in the beginning of women's rights, which became codified legally over the ensuing century. It also had the effect of reducing the number of ambiguous separations, which were against the fabric of the Victorian family life. In effect, the change in the role of women was not huge, but it was significant. Rights within the family increased, as did station in society. Changing attitudes towards intercourse are also important. Marriage is important in this sphere also, as well as family life. One of the most striking features of Victorian England was the relative decline in prostitution compared with the increase of towns and cities. This may be attributed to the transformation towards a family atmosphere, and the importance of sexual relations in the home. This may be attributed towards the Victorian culture of evangelicalism and nonconformity both of which preached ideas of temperance, and the consequent decline in alcohol consumption amongst respectable people. Alongside this came a new awareness of sexual diseases, with many people feeling sufficiently more comfortable with themselves to request treatment. Sex as an act was more considered in the medical sphere also. Books were written detailing every aspect of sexuality, from academic books on ‘the orgasmic theory of ovulation' to Dr Becklard's self-help book ‘Becklard's physiology'. It is true however, that by the end of the Victorian period, bipolar attitudes towards sex, meant that women were portrayed in nature as either frigid or insatiable, and men absolved from blame as servants to their katabolic needs. In effect, although women experienced a change in their roles and their perception, as sexual objects, their portrayal was quite regressive. To this extent sex in terms of the portrayal of men and women was both progressive in terms of thinking and theory (although most often mistaken) yet also regressive in its portrayals of each sex and its consequent categorisations of the sexes, which not until Freud were reversed. In addition to this, for the first time, sex education was taught on a very primitive level at school, and carnal sex was mentioned at a very understated level at home. In effect, trends of sex education were just breaking through, but nonetheless they were there. In conclusion, the Victorians were more aware of sex, both categorical and carnal. Trends towards traditional sexual roles were changed as men frequently took over roles at home, and women often took over their husbands businesses after death. Family trends revolutionised the position of the male at home, along with a willingness to consider women's rights by allowing the Custody and Divorce Acts to be passed through parliament. Moreover, the Victorian female was able to push for such reform as she found a new social and political voice not before experience. This is not to say that suddenly the female was the central character in society, far from it. Husband continued to beat wives, and the Divorce Act didn't precipitate a mass rush for every abused female to divorce their husbands. The female role was still very much subordinate to the male, but it was significantly improved on the position of the eighteenth century female. Trends towards intercourse complemented this as trends in marriage changed the way Victorian men sought sex. Prostitution declined and the social/medical considerations of sex changed in a way not seen in the eighteenth century. Although the austere male dominated society still excused the male from any blame of carnal desire, as compared with the female who was pushed to extremes of frigidity or insatiability. In effect, awareness of sex was increased, or at least more openly discussed.

Business context Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Business context - Essay Example The main philosophy of R&D is that the money invested today will fetch higher profits for the company in near future. It is a complex process with a structured framework. The steps of the process consist of â€Å"synthesis and extraction of new helpful molecules, biological screening & pharmacological testing and pharmaceutical dosage formulation with stability testing.† (Pharmaceutical R&D: Costs, Risks, and Rewards, 1993) This process of developing, testing and offering the drug to the market is time consuming and expensive. Due to these factors R&D cost is gradually increasing which is directly affecting the increment of new drug prices. This will be evident if we carefully notice the new drug prices, which are growing more rapidly than the inflation rate, whereas the prices of old drug show decrement. Global pharmaceutical market scenario is extremely complex; here the large public sector investments is in basic biomedical R&D that influences the private sector to intensiv ely fund on new research and development programs. Here the demand for the drugs are also indirectly generated i.e. the doctors and the health insurances act here as mediators to initiate demand for the drugs by prescribing them. Recently apart from the growth in the R&D cost a new crisis also gained prominence in the pharmaceutical world and that is the patentability of drugs and health related innovations. The pharmaceutical companies pour in billions of dollars on the R&D of new products and without the Intellectual Property (IP) protection law the formulations of the drugs are simply being duplicated. These duplicate formulations are synthesized at much low cost and the company, which initially developed the formulation, loses huge amount of revenue. Due to this reason the pharmaceutical companies utilizes the IP Law to monopolize the production and marketing of these innovative drugs. Here this report will make an attempt to focus on the recent scenario of pharmaceutical sector regarding the causes of growing cost in R&D segment and the importance of the intellectual patent tenure alterations for maintaining monopoly of the pharmaceutical companies. (OTA, 1993; Wei, n.d., p.1)     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Industry Overview on high R&D costs and Patent rights As mentioned earlier, the pharmaceutical companies annually endow billions of dollars in R&D. Recent studies reflect there is a staggering growth of expenses in R&D costs of the global pharmaceutical industry. Though R&D costs are tremendously increasing day-by-day, the pharmaceutical companies think of it as a necessary evil. It is because R&D cost enables the company to synthesize new formulations and helps to open new avenues of opportunity to generate greater profits. R&D costs vary widely between different drugs as this cost depends upon the type of formulation b eing developed. The factors influencing the R&D cost are the probability of success, the molecule base of the new drug or modification of an existing generic drug. Development of innovative drugs cost the most, a rough estimation reveals it generally amounts to more than $800 million (CBO, 2006. p.2); it also includes the cost of failed attempts. This estimate

Same sex marriage vs heterosexual marriage Essay

Same sex marriage vs heterosexual marriage - Essay Example r inclusive of gay or lesbian partners which means there will be no children from either of the partners, and hence the marriage that takes place looks flawed in entirety. This is the reason why heterosexual marriages are considered the natural process to keep the ecosystem growing in a normal manner. There are no issues that the people find with heterosexual marriages since they are fundamentally based on the premise of bringing in individuals under the institution of marriage with the objective of giving birth to children. Another aspect why heterosexual marriages are deemed as successful is because they are openly accepted by the societal manifestations and hence there are no issues that are encountered by the people at large. The same sex marriages do not give this kind of liberty since they are marred by immense issues of non-acceptance even by the most immediate family members of the gay and lesbian partners. Hence acceptance is a much significant phenomenon that needs to be understood in a proper manner here. Without acceptance, the society will not come about usually as it would in a heterosexual marriage which gives more respect and dignity to the partners than a same sex marriage would do. One more aspect that is deemed as quintessential here is the fact that heterosexual marriages bank on the premise of understanding that people have an equal chance to make use of the resources present in this earth and hence they must do all that they can to interact with the society to keep the cycle growing. By this, what one means to suggest is that the childbirth aspect should not come down at any stage. The same sex marriages are dependent on just the lust factor where as the heterosexual marriages ensure more than lust alone – they are the entire code of life and should be seen as such (Allen 2006). Essentially speaking, the heterosexual and the same sex marriages have a huge amount of differences which need to be properly gauged. The heterosexual marriage is

Korean Movie Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Korean Movie - Essay Example The connection between the two movies was very obvious, I do not know if the director retained on purpose the actors who played Kim Yu Shin and the farmer guy, but the continuity was even more felt because of this. I enjoyed the Kim Yu Shin character because he was already crazy in Battle of Hwangsanbeol and even funnier in Pyongyang Castle. But even if he was portrayed as a funny guy, I saw how he became Korea’s hero based on the things he did from the two movies. The moral of the story of Pyongyang Castle was different from that of the Battle of Hwangsanbeol. Pyongyang Castle was more of a love story and showed the love for family, compared to the other movie, which showed that honor and name of the family is the most important thing in the Korean culture, even if honor will be gained through death. Overall, the movie Pyongyang Castle was entertaining and informative at the same time because it showed a glimpse of the Korean history and the colorful culture that it has. The movie portrayed good moral and family values, even if the theme was about war. After watching the movie, I thought of having my friends watch the movie also, because I found it worth-watching though they have to make do with the subtitles just like I

Business Econimics Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Business Econimics - Research Paper Example The elasticity of demand might affected too: Since trust is hard to earn and easy to lose, it is likely that once a company has violated ethical standards, consumers will be afraid of getting burnt again and will avoid the company at the first sign of trouble, making their offerings more elastic. Costs might raise: Contractors, suppliers and distributors might ask for a higher price for their service and goods, either because they feel that the company's bargaining position has declined, as insurance against potential malfeasance, or as compensation for the inevitable PR hit. Ethical issues are more likely to occur in deregulated markets (Palast, 2002; Palast, 2004). This is for a few reasons. First: The kind of behavior that occurs in a deregulated market tends to already be less constrained by conventional ethics, meaning that companies that thrive in that environment are already likely to have unorthodox and perhaps unscrupulous cultures and practices. Second: Regulation, both by NGOs and government, tends to make companies more sensitive to the impacts of what they are doing; it might be seen by someone. One of the major ways that Enron managed to get away with so much was the inaction of shareholders and the failure of accounting firms, auditors and regulators (Palast, 2002; Berenbeim, 2002). Consider a rise in demand for computer chips and potato chips. Potato chips are pure luxury items: They are highly elastic, because people can afford to go without potato chips. Computers and the chips that make them up, in contrast, are essential items for business, homes, political agencies and NGOs. The economy runs on telecommunication technology, credit card processing, etc. that is all done through computerized systems. A reduction in demand can't hurt computer makers much, despite the relatively high cost of producing computer chips to potato chips, because they are so essential. In the short run, a potato chip maker might harvest more potatoes, run lines faste r, or pack factories more tightly to increase production. A computer chip maker might do the same thing, but while the occasional green or stale potato chip is not a threat to the potato chip makers' reputation, a failing computer chip costs headaches in bad reviews, tech support headaches and so on. Buying new factories for potato chips is likely to be easy: Buying and properly fitting new factories and training new personnel for computer chips is much harder. In the long run, of course, the potato chip company has to bear in mind that a new health fad, a change in the taste buds and palates of customers, a marketing campaign, or something else might harm the demand for their product. They can't afford to get too much excess. Further, potato chips must be strictly identified according to USDA standards, meaning rebranding is more difficult than it might seem and companies are less flexible than an initial review would suggest (2009). However, computer chip makers know that, in the long run, their product cannot help but grow, as the Third World catches up and computerizes more and more and as more and more products need computer chips. Thus, it's clear that a product that is elastic might have some more flexibility in dealing with spikes, but tends to have difficulty maintaining those spikes and therefore taking advantage of them, whereas a less elastic product might take longer to get

Central Financial Management Activities Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Central Financial Management Activities - Essay Example It is not uncommon for an organization to employ its directors and/or its chairperson when it comes to judgment in the financial management process. Judgment must be borne on issues of strategy, performance, and resources, including key appointments and standards of conduct. Organizations may also employ non-executive directors for the judicial process, as an independent judgment that is free from bias is superior (Mcmenamin 1999). It is the task of the judgment personnel to evaluate what has taken place in relation to how the financial picture of an organization can be improved. The judges in the financial management process have the capacity to do away with certain decisions and thereby begin a new financial year with better prospects. Most Fortune 500-size firms use sophisticated mathematical and statistically-based methods in the financial management of inventory. A firm’s financial managers concentrate on the allocation and efficient management of financial resources in various inventory categories, for example, raw materials, work-in-progress, and finished goods. A firm’s production and inventory managers, on the other hand, are more interested in the efficient production of different finished goods items, and therefore pay close attention to employee production schedules, long production runs, and the storage of finished goods. It is not infrequent for a conflict of interest to arise between these two branches of management. The top management must intervene in this case to determine the proper investment of financial resources in the production function. Now a great deal of analysis enters the picture. For this, all firms must have data necessary to make precise calculations of cost-convenience -profit trade-offs (Grablowsky 1984).

Socio-Cultural Impacts of Tourism on Shanghai Research Paper

Socio-Cultural Impacts of Tourism on Shanghai - Research Paper Example Shanghai is the most industrialized metropolis in China and is counted as one of the major metropolitan cities of the world. Shanghai has more than 5,800 square kilometers. Most tourists visiting Shanghai are usually advised to travel with maps in order not to get lost. The metropolis is not only identified as a financial, economic, and trade center, but is also admired for its cultural as well as historical heritage. The capital city, Beijing, is approximately 1460 km away from Shanghai. Most tourists in China, who wish to visit Shanghai, usually take the two hour flight from the capital to Shanghai, or take a 17 hour train journey that allows them to enjoy the scenery. Shanghai tourist attractions are easy to get to from its main center. Some of these include the Yuyuan Gardens, the Bund, which is the embodiment of Shanghai's history in prominent architectural structures, the lake Dianshan Hu, and the Four Cornered Pagoda, which is locally referred to as the Fang Ta. Shanghai, which is China's business and financial headquarters, has in the recent past benefitted from a double-digit growth. The city got over 80 million foreign and domestic tourists in 2001, alone. No town in China has fully embraced modernity and technology in the same way as Shanghai has. When in Shanghai, a tourist may get the illusion that he or she is in Europe or America and not Communist China. Shanghai radiates a cosmopolitan quality that is characterized by the contemporary lifestyles of its citizens, busy industrial and financial districts, skyscrapers, one of the busiest harbors in the area and ultra-chic business centers like museums, hotels, and shopping malls. While Be ijing is recognized as the center of the political government of China, which sponsors the Chinese academic institutions, Shanghai is known worldwide as China’s economic center and an incredibly enterprising city. Once a tiny and sleepy fishing rural community in the 1800s, Shanghai has been turned into a most enchanting, decadent and refined Chinese city. According to (Moscardo 3), â€Å"Shanghai has been dubbed as the "Paris of the East." International tourism takes place when citizens from different nations travel across intercontinental borders outside their normal homes as well as places of work, and stay for more than 24 hours in their places of visitation. The motivations for such trips are diverse, but usually recognized as being largely influenced by health, recreation, friendship and family visits, education, business, sports, and religion. As one of the most significant sources of foreign exchange revenue, and an investment catalyst, knowledge disseminator, and em ployment generator, international tourism has grown to be one of Shanghai’s most significant industries. Tourism has developed swiftly in Shanghai. At present, China is investing a lot of capital in promoting tourism and revising laws that govern its tourist industry. In the coming years, China expects to experience even more growth in this area, with the lion share of this development taking place in Shanghai. China’s tourism industry was somewhat affected by SARS scare but recovered swiftly. China is projected to be the world’s most fashionable tourist destination in the next decade. According to (Pike and Ryan 333), â€Å"tourism in Shanghai is a colossal labor intensive business that

Impact of Technology and Community Policing on Eliminating the Street Essay - 1

Impact of Technology and Community Policing on Eliminating the Street Gangs - Essay Example Since the entry of the technology in the market, the police force has been able to improve the security levels in the streets and public parks. In an example, through CCTV cameras and other technologies, it has become possible for the police to react on time, an aspect that has played a significant role in reducing cases of murder and extortions in the neighborhoods. This is an indication that the government and the people need to embrace the use of technology in curbing crimes and crime related activities. For instance, the police need to shift from the use of the traditional methods of communities and instead start the use of social media in order to receive the grievances from the residents. This would play a significant role in ensuring that there is no vacuum in the society which can be used by the gangs to terrorize the locals. In addition, it would enable the police to be up-to-date with what is happening. Moreover, such technology would be significant in providing a platform where the law enforcers can interact and share ideas on how to improve the security in the area. The local people are the ones who are affected. As a result, they might give options or ideas on how to eliminate the street gangs in the society. Street gangs exist in areas where there is no effective coordination between the law enforcers and the local population. In many cases, citizens accuse the law enforcers of complacency, especially when dealing with petty issues. However, when young generation is brought up in lawless areas, they are likely to fall into the acts of the gangs. Therefore, the parents and the police need to work together in order to ensure that all people are safe. This cannot be achieved when there are blame games between the police and the public.

Actual families Essay Example for Free

Actual families Essay The views of actual families and perceived families on inner city family values are different in the sense that reality hits actual families. Our minds can perceive what should be done but if we check reality, poverty is a serious problem that should be dealt with fervor. Teaching family values is the foundation of all solutions to these problems. Why is that so? If children learn family values at home and the parents show them good example in practicing these values, children will most likely emulate the parents (Learning Family, 1999, p. 1). Then there will be no existence of violent crimes since people practice compassion. There will be no extreme poverty since people practice being industrious. All these could be perceived in the mind but can be transformed into reality. Finally, it is not true that inner societies should believe that poverty is part and parcel of the society they belong. Poverty can be eradicated by all means if cooperation of the people concerned can be given. However, there are people who become poor because of the things that they do not have control of. And other people experience poverty because they are too indolent to work hard. The former cause of poverty deserves to be treated as recoverable and can be solved. See more: Beowulf essay essay And there is nothing we can do for people who become poor due to idleness and slothfulness. Thus, family values of industry and integrity must be upheld in both actual and perceived families on inner cities. References Ashman, K. Hull, G. 1999. Understanding Generalist Practice. USA: Nelson-Hall, Inc. International Herald Tribune. 2008. Global Food Shortage; America’s light still shines; moving too fast. Retrieved September 30, 2008, from http://www. iht. com /articles/2008/03/13/opinion/edlet. php. Learning Family. 1999. Learning Family Values. Retrieved September 30, 2008, from http://www. learningfamily. net/about/values. htm. News 24 Website. 2008 August 25. Poverty, parenting cause crime. Retrieved October 1, 2008, from http://www. news24. com/News24/South_Africa/News/0,,2-7-1442_2382088,00. html. Overpopulation Website. 2008 September 7. Impacts. Retrieved September 30, 2008, from http://www. overpopulation. org/impact. html. Vogel, S. 2008 August 24. Gazette Extra. Does Poverty Equal Crime? Scholars disagree. Retrieved October 1, 2008, from http://gazettextra. com/news/2008/aug/24/does-poverty-crime-scholars-disagree/. Wattenberg, M. , Edwards III, G. Lineberry, R. 2003. Government of America. USA: Addison- Wesley Educational Publishers, Inc.

The Internet revolution Essay Example for Free

The Internet revolution Essay The economics of information in the 1990s permanently altered the traditional linear supply chain of sources, manufactures, distributors, retailers, and customers via the Web (Pyne 2000, p1). With the emergence of the internet over the past fifteen years, the supply chains for e-retailers have evolved in a similar fashion to the industrial revolution. Unlike traditional brick and mortar retailers, e-retailers supply chains include the front-end interaction, the consumers themselves (Cucuzza and Cherian, 2001). Therefore, it is essential that e-retailers ensure a smooth integration of information between the front-end users and the back-end support functions. To be successful, e-retailers need to provide an efficient marketing strategy to understand the customer buying requirements, and to be able to address them. The role of technology has allowed e-retailers the ability to collect and analyze personal trends of their consumers, although at a possible personal infringement of their cliental. In addition, as superb the front-end model may be, many companies fail today due to insufficiently integrating and ensuring a back-end support function is in place to provide efficient and timely delivery to consumers. This paper will address the e-retailer supply chain addressing both spectrums the consumer relationship management and the supply chain management. Moreover, this paper will also draw upon various companies strategic internet successes as examples. The Beginnings of the Internet Revolution Similar to the Industrial Revolution, where growth was predominately spurred by standardized mechanical interfaces, breaking down procedures into many mini-procedures (Fordism), the Internet Revolution is being stimulated by the standardization of interchangeable business processes (Cucuzza and Cherian 2001, p. 3). The interchangeable business processes are the digital interfaces between e-business tools and the internet. These tools are derived from the improvements in technology, from the storage of digital data to digital information (Cucuzza and Cherian 2001). E-Business. The buzzword E-business has emerged as a new strategic initiative for companies to pursue. E-business can be defined as buying and selling over digital media, and includes both front- and back-office applications to maximize customer value (Kalakota 1999, p4). With increased pressures on companies to perform and ensure quarterly growth, senior management has implemented numerous past initiatives including downsizing, re-organizing, and re-engineered processes to cut costs. Utilizing the benefits of technology to exploit the power of e-business allows for senior management to transform the existing business models. As popular as the internet medium has become for on-line shopping for consumers it is not a perfect system. Consumers are unable to touch, smell, or try on products. They may not be able to determine the quality of products, or how some products may compliment others (for example, ensuring the correct speakers are used for a specific amplifier). Although e-retailers do provide quality reports and analysis, it is not the same as experiencing the sound itself. In addition, payments are electronic and have been prone to security flaws, and the delivery of the goods has been cumbersome at times. These difficulties have become a norm for many e-retailers to develop a sustainable business, however with the use of technology they have been able to create advantages that may not be found within the norms of traditional shopping. Marketing of E-retailers On-line shopping has numerous benefits to the consumers, it reduces time and is more convenient to shop from the luxury of your own home, and provides the consumer with the ability to compare prices, products, and availability. However, although this constitutes an opportunity for retailers, it is also a challenge. The critical success factors include i.) use of customer databases; ii. ) easy ordering and; iii. ) quick delivery (Agrawal, Singh, p. 1538). With the notion that buying on-line is convenient, consumers expect e-retailer websites to be very useful and efficient. With the usage of technology, E-retailers have developed websites that are very informative, and easy to use. E-retailers provide information about the product, quality reports, customer reviews, comparison to substitutes, shipping rates and schedules. All the information is at the click of a button, 24 hours a day. The technology has provided the websites to be more interactive, and with better visuals. It is essential that e-retailers provide additional services including a shopping basket for consumers to keep track of goods that have been selected, and a search engine which allows the consumer to search the website quickly without going through many different internet pages. Moreover, a safe and efficient payment system is required that has data integrity. This system is known as the e-commerce paradox. E-commerce firms must be open and closed at the same time (Awad, 2004). They must be able to share information with suppliers, business to business (B2B), and with business to customers (B2C). E-retailers security includes firewalls, passwords and log-ins, and virtual private networks, as well as intrusion devices (Awad 2004, p. 405). Technology has introduced a honeypot system, which is designed to showcase an artificial environment that lure attackers into thinking they have gained access, giving time for authorities to potentially track down the intruder (Awad 2004, p. 403). Another important aspect for e-retailers to increase the likelihood of consumers purchasing on-line from their websites is Customer Relationship Management. The first step is for e-retailers to develop a strategy that will allow e-retailers to properly promote to their target market, and allow them to focus on customer requirements. However, understanding your customer needs has taken on a new avenue with advancements in technological software. Technology gains have also been demonstrated in the marketing techniques of e-retailing. The concept of buying on-line is still relatively new, and many consumers are still hesitant of it. There is nothing to stop a consumer to research on-line, and then purchase the product at an actual outlet. Research has demonstrated that brand loyalty and price elasticity are less important compared to bricks and mortar shopping as consumers are exposed to a lot of information and therefore they usually look for the best value (Agrawal and Singh, p. 1549). In many instances, a person may abandon her shopping cart in the middle of the checkout process, but for reasons unknown. Forrester Research estimates that 82% of e-retailers depend on consumers to hit the links to their websites and page view to manage the success of their websites, however only 2% of the visitors will actually purchase online (Ismretail 2002, p3). With this in mind, online intelligence has become a technical advancement to achieve. Click-stream technology allows e-retailers to ability to understand abandonment and provide them with the information to react accordingly. By analyzing clickstream data a trail of mouse clicks left by a user who visits a website a retailer can make use of details such as the number of users, where they come from, which pages are visited, the order in which they visited them, how much time was spent on each page, and where they went after your site (Ismretail 2002, p3). This information used properly can assist e-retailers in determining trends of their customers, their similar likes and dislikes, and where their websites can be improved. The information gathered can even determine if the consumer chose to go to a competitor site, and compare prices. This data allows the e-retailer to market accordingly to each individual customer. On Amazon, when an individual purchases a book the company will then analyze the purchase with other recent purchases and then promote other books that may be of interest. This is very similar to the movie Minority Report starring Tom Cruise which is set in the year 2054. There is a scene in the film that shows Cruise walking through a shopping concourse is bombarded with personal advertisements based on marketers analysis on Tom Cruises role individuality. With new technology developed over the past few years (i. e. Clickstream software), consumers will be more closely watched by sites and receiving personalized pitches based on past browsing behavior (Stone 2004, p2). This may stimulate increased purchases, and higher sales for the e-retailer, but could be looked at an infringement on the privacy of consumers. Websites now include Meta data and extensible markup language (XML), which are standards for tagging data on web searches. Although, this may be a positive factor for e-retailers to analyze consumer behavior on an individual basis, the ethical side to this comes in to question. When is it crossing the line on consumers rights? Web analytic companies are now increasingly offering their services from $30,000 to over a $100,000 a year (Stone 2004, p2). More recently, Sportsline. com has used a web analytical company to identify customers dropping out of an American football fantasy pool, which enabled Sportsline to address and improve its processes that led to an increased number of paying customers (Stone 2004, p2). Moreover, technology has led firms such as Atomz to offer advance search engines for e-retailers to attach special promotions to the searched item. PalmOne has recently used this service which has converted the number of searchers to buyers by over 60% (Stone 2004, p2). With the immense competition e-retailers face, other global websites, and the traditional brick and mortar stores, it is important that they cater to their customer needs. The traditional statement that location is everything has little value in e-retailing as all websites have equal distance to their consumers. It is therefore essential that e-retailers seek means to ensure customers return to their websites. The key factors are efficiency, personalization, socialization, and the look and feel of the site (Agrawal and Singh, p. 1537). Although, this may indicate that they may infringe on consumer privacy rights, they have used technology to their benefit to obtain information that is beneficial in making strategic decisions. However, having a strong front-end website does not guarantee success. Once the consumer initiates the first step by purchasing a product, the actual delivery of goods becomes just as important in the supply chain. Back-end System Support Once the e-retailer obtains a client, it is essential that they provide an efficient back-end system that will ensure availability, workable ordering website, and delivery on-time. Accenture international research has indicated that 1 in 4 internet purchases fail due to various reasons (Agrawal and Singh, p. 1549). In the traditional avenue of shopping, many consumers will not go back to a store if the ability to purchase items fails 25% of the time. Accenture has also stated that one of the most common reasons for this failure include that items are usually out of stock, which indicates that the front-end systems are not connected to the back-end support systems (Agrawal and Singh, p. 1549). A seamless integration of all systems, for example, implementing an Enterprise Resource System is required. This integration will allow the e-retailers to advise if the product is in stock, the expected delivery date, and substitute and compliment product availability. Moreover, systems that connect with vendors will advise the e-retailers if the products are in back-order, different characteristics of the product (size and colour) and delivery time. This connection of all information systems now provides the capability to consumers to select from a menu of shipping rates and schedules, and then be able to track the fulfillment of the order in real time. Digital Deconstruction processes have accelerated in that by creating digital interfaces between processes, companies can automate these processes to achieve scale efficiencies unattainable in the past (Cucuzza and Cherian 2001, p. 2). Studies have shown that when customers and vendors share a single system, and orders are entered once, a 75% to 90% reduction in transaction costs occur utilizing a web-based catalog. The different processes include: Preparation of purchasing requirements   Identification of potential suppliers Deliverables specification, volumes, price, delivery, transportation   Fulfillment   Receiving and holding supplies   Relationship building with suppliers (Groucutt and Griseri 2004, p180). The use of technology to improve the efficiency of the supply chain, and ensure customer satisfaction can be demonstrated using company examples. Roundpeak Although the company no longer exists, it was one of the first online retailers who used technology to manage its physical and virtual supply chain. It had partnerships with manufacturers across four countries, air cargo companies, and with warehouse, fulfillment and delivery operators. The numerous B2B partners created a need for Roundpeak to ensure that the various departments in the supply chain communicated accordingly. An online order was instantly fed to the fulfillment house, a packaging and inventory control center, and into a warehousing, inventory, and delivery data system that was accessed by all members of the supply chain. If a customer orders a product, a request to the manufacturer goes out electronically. Once it receives the goods from the manufacturer, a digital signature is sent to authorize receipt, which allows the purchase order and receipt to be matched digitally. The purchase order would then instantly be fed into the accounts payable system where funds are transferred at once. This system was known as the Electronic Bill Presentment and Payment system (EBPP). The benefits included streamlining relationships with suppliers and eliminating redundancies by inputting completed once by the consumer. (Case study developed by Pyne 2000).

Information Search and Analysis Skills

Information Search and Analysis Skills 1.0 SYNOPSIS The research was carried on one of Microsoft Windows operating systems which is Windows 2000. The various factors such as security, reliability and easy to use interface were discussed. In Windows 2000 security is more improved as compared to previous versions, point-to-point Tunnel protocol (PPTP) and layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP as alternative security for Virtual Private Network (VPN)). Windows 2000 security has significant benefits like confidentiality, authentification, Data integrity, Smarts cards, Encryption and Kerberos. It is a reliable desktop and laptop operating system for business of all types. It is a build on NT technology and offers rock solid reliability and manageability. The operating system provide an intelligent user interface that adapts to the way users work and this makes it more efficient. 2.0 INTRODUCTION According to Silberschatz (2007), Windows 2000 is a type of operating systems released by Microsoft Company for use on business desktops, notebook computers and servers. This operating system was released on 17 February 2000. Windows 2000 was originally named Windows NT 5.0, this is because it was a successor to Windows NT 4.0, then Windows NT 2000 and finally was called Windows 2000. Windows NT 5.0 was the last version of Windows NT. An operating system is a boundary between the hardware and the user that manages and coordinates the activities in order to share the resources of the computer. It acts as basic program for computing applications that are run on the machine. As a basic program some of the tasks it performs are recognizing input from the keyboard, sending output to the display screen, keeping track of files and directory on the disk and controlling peripherals devices such as printers and disk drives. In a nutshell, operating system handles the details of the operation o f the hardware. As it is the successor of Windows NT 4.0 operating system it was titled Windows NT 5.0. This operating system combines the stability and security of Windows NT 4.0 and Plug-and-Play capabilities of Windows 9x. windows 2000 supports new technologies such as Accelerated Graphics Ports, USB devices, DVD drives, multifunction adapter cards and also a full line of PC cards. This operating system also grants a new distributed directory service for controlling resources across an enterprise, FAT 32 support, and the internet Explorer 5 web browser. Crowley C. (1998) said, Windows 2000 has four basic editions, these are Windows 2000 Professional, Windows 2000 server, Windows 2000 advanced server and Window 2000 datacenter server. These editions were targeted for different markets and they share the most significant features and system utilities, which include Microsoft Management Console and typical system administration applications. The entire set of versions sustains Windows NT file system, NTFS 3.0, Encryption File System and disk storage. Windows 2000 might be installed in two ways, that is either manual or unattended installation and it requires at least 133MHZ Pentium class system with 64mb of RAM. BACKGROUND STUDY Security http://www.answers.com/topic/microsoft.windows stated that, it is important to implement security on computing environment so that unauthorized users cannot have access, steal or damage system resources. Implementing security has significant benefits on computer users because only authorized personnel have access. TCP/IP provides security on windows 2000 with internet standards that use cryptographic security services: 3.1.1 Confidentiality: Internet Protocol security (IPSec) traffic is encrypted and can only be decrypted with and encryption key. 3.1.2 Authentification: Before the receiver verifies that the message was sent by IPSec peer, the IPSec traffic has to be digitally signed with the shared encryption key. 3.1.3 Data Integrity: A cryptographic checksum that have the encryption key is found in IPSec traffic. Confirmation on modification of packets can be done by a receiver. 3.1.4 Smart Cards: To protect your network smart card technology is used in windows 2000 environment, unlike using password protection. Tamper-proof storage is offered for a users key pair and an associated public key certificate and these keys are termed as symmetric and asymmetric keys which are protected through Personal Identification Number (PIN) that the users required to enter. If you are a smart card writer you are also a smart card reader, this means you preserve to use a generic smart card reader to write certificate to a smart card. ( http://technet Microsoft.com/en-us/library/dd316363.aspx) 3.1.5 Encryption for data: Windows 2000 offer the ability to make information unreadable that is encryption, by using the techniques of NTFS file system so that unauthorized users can not access your data. Files and folders can be encrypted by setting an attribute under Properties dialog box. Encryption is done through the use of algorithms that mess up, reorganize and encode the data. There is a key pair that has a private and public key. It is used to encode and decode the encrypted information. The user has to designate a recovery agent so that the data can be recovered when the key pair is lost or damaged. If the user has not designated a recovery agent the data cannot be recovered. (http://www.answers.com/topic/microsoft.windows) 3.1.6 Central storage of security policy and account information: the purpose of this policy is to implement security that is required by computer systems and data and grant accountability agenda for users. It also creates, processes and manages sensitive information on daily basis. The appropriate mechanism are developed and maintained to protect the confidentiality, integrity and availability of computerized information. (http://www.answers.com/topic/microsoft.windows) 3.1.7 Kerberos: Dr.R.C.Joshi e tal (2005) stated that, these are protocols used to enable users to authenticate without sending a password over the network. A user obtains a special kind of key from the network central security at login. The protocol prevents outside attacks. The name Kerberos comes from Greek mythological three- headed dog that guarded the entrance to Hades. Reliability This refers to the ability of the operating system to protect itself from handling error conditions, protect its users from malfunctioning software. Windows 2000 is reliable on desktop and notebook computers operating system for businesses of all kinds. It is more reliable as compared to Windows 95 and 98. Windows 2000 uses hardware protection for virtual memory to be resistant to failings and attacks. It also uses software protection mechanism for operating system resources. Windows 2000 has local file system, which is NTFS file system and it recovers automatically from many types of file-system errors after system crash, said Dr. Joshi R. C. (2005). Dr. Joshi R.C (2005) also stated that, changes were made on kernel-mode to make windows 2000 reliable. Kernel-mode write protection offers and reads only subsections of device drivers and kernel. It has code signing which verifies the source of system file and existing Digital Signature Cryptographic technology before windows 2000 is installed. There is also Pool tagging where better drivers and cleaner code are produced by kernel mode device drive because memory allocations are made to selected device drivers out of a special pool, unlike a shared system pool. The recovery time is reduced on Faster CHKDSK. An administrator is given one step process to dependably restart Internal Information Server. There is a kill process tree which when a parent process is stopped makes sure that all processes initiated by parent process are removed. Kernel-only crash dumps are added for contents of the kernel to be written optionally to disk after a crash. Users can correct installation problems o r change settings that have caused boot problems when Safe-mode boot uses its minimal services to boot the computer. Easy to use interface The user interface of Windows 2000 id more improved compared to other versions. In Windows 2000 the information is accessed quickly whether it is on a computer or network. Improved wizards of windows 2000 assist users to achieve tough tasks quicker. Only items that are used more frequently are displayed on Start menu and this made the Screen clutter to be reduced. The Dialog box has been improved as words are automatically completed when the user types and most recently used words are listed so that the user can select the appropriate. The Quick launch tool bar can be used to open Microsoft Internet Explorer or to read the e-mail by adding the customizable toolbars. Also with Windows 2000 desktop, it is easy to switch between windows and the desktop because the new Show Desktop button is located on the task bar. My Documents offers a permanent location which store personal files and folders and it also has My Picture folder where photos can be stored and scanned. Windows 2000 support s multilingual, that is it can identify and establish any essential fonts or signs to observe multilingual information. Encryption and decryption methods are made transparent to authorized users because each file is encrypted with its key. Windows 2000 also provide smart cards which require users names and passwords unlike depending on a single factor to authenticate a user. (http://technet Microsoft.com/en-us/library/dd316363.aspx) Windows 2000 offers 25% faster performance than Windows 95 and 98 on systems with 64MB and more memory. Its web intergrated capabilities and broad support for mobile computers and hardware devices make easy for business operators to connect to internet and work anywhere and at anytime. (http://technet Microsoft.com/en-us/library/dd316363.aspx) 4.0 CONCLUSION To conclude on this, Windows 2000 is a far more secure and reliable than previous other version. The process of installation and configuration of hardware is easy compared to NT platforms. It provides centralized management of users and resources over the network and it also offers enhanced security management of users, computers and devices. This makes Windows 2000 to support a security model stronger than those of previous Microsoft operating systems. It is interoperable with various operating systems, like Novell Netware, Windows NT Server 4.0, Macintosh, Linux and UNIX. The operating system runs on a wide variety of computers and users can choose and upgrade hardware to match their budgets and performance requirements without needing to alter the applications that they run. REFERENCE 1. Available: http://technet Microsoft.com/en-us/library/dd316363.aspx (cited on 15 July 2009) 2. Available: http://www.answers.com/topic/microsoft.windows (cited on 17 July 2009) 3. Dr.R.C.Joshi e tal (2005) Operating Systems 4. Crowley C, (1998) Operating Systems, a design oriented Approach 5. Silberschatz A, e tal (2007) Operating System concepts

E-commerce :: essays research papers

Business and the Internet The past several years have marked a time which is comparable to the coming of television and the radio. The Internet has grown from a simple way to send messages to and from two different computers with different operating systems, known as the beginning of E-Mail, to a way to sell and buy products just like in the tangible world. This article explains that the Internet or Web must be reckoned in dog years, because the pace of change is so fast that one year on the Internet is like seven years in any other medium. Fifteen million households connected to the "Net" can be a large market for any business willing and ready to scoop it up. By the year 2000, the projection is that North America will have 38 million online households, one third of all households. The reasoning, or thesis, of the article is the question of whether the Web should be used for information purposes, or for a new marketplace in this expanding goldmine of information. The potential for businesses is enormous. Fifteen million people is a very large consumer marketplace. Consumers are not the only ones "surfing" around for info. Businesses also focus on other companies to sell their products. General Electric sold machine and appliance parts using a new business to business technology called "extranet". GE used its successful "extranet" to roll in 1996 online sales of one billion dollars. Another very successful type of business on the net is the coming of services backed by research, such as discount stock trading, including e.Schwab and a Web-only company called E*Trade. Travel services have been very promising because the transactions can be supported by extensive computer databases of useful information. The Web is particularly effective at selling services backed by research. The reasoning behind the financial services taking up the Web is the fact that they are backed up by extensive research. The main worry with the Web and its growth is the concern of false information and crackpot theories masquerading as facts. The Web is flooded with many different kinds of businesses and "personal" Web pages which could mislead the consumer into believing false information. The only way to combat this problem is to trust "brand name" business and services. The only way to tell if you can trust a site or business is to have previous interaction with this company. As the web expands and the number of "companies" grows, brand names that are known will become progressively more important. E-commerce :: essays research papers Business and the Internet The past several years have marked a time which is comparable to the coming of television and the radio. The Internet has grown from a simple way to send messages to and from two different computers with different operating systems, known as the beginning of E-Mail, to a way to sell and buy products just like in the tangible world. This article explains that the Internet or Web must be reckoned in dog years, because the pace of change is so fast that one year on the Internet is like seven years in any other medium. Fifteen million households connected to the "Net" can be a large market for any business willing and ready to scoop it up. By the year 2000, the projection is that North America will have 38 million online households, one third of all households. The reasoning, or thesis, of the article is the question of whether the Web should be used for information purposes, or for a new marketplace in this expanding goldmine of information. The potential for businesses is enormous. Fifteen million people is a very large consumer marketplace. Consumers are not the only ones "surfing" around for info. Businesses also focus on other companies to sell their products. General Electric sold machine and appliance parts using a new business to business technology called "extranet". GE used its successful "extranet" to roll in 1996 online sales of one billion dollars. Another very successful type of business on the net is the coming of services backed by research, such as discount stock trading, including e.Schwab and a Web-only company called E*Trade. Travel services have been very promising because the transactions can be supported by extensive computer databases of useful information. The Web is particularly effective at selling services backed by research. The reasoning behind the financial services taking up the Web is the fact that they are backed up by extensive research. The main worry with the Web and its growth is the concern of false information and crackpot theories masquerading as facts. The Web is flooded with many different kinds of businesses and "personal" Web pages which could mislead the consumer into believing false information. The only way to combat this problem is to trust "brand name" business and services. The only way to tell if you can trust a site or business is to have previous interaction with this company. As the web expands and the number of "companies" grows, brand names that are known will become progressively more important.

Realism in Patricia MacLachlan’s Sarah, Plain and Tall :: Sarah Plain Tall

Realism in Patricia MacLachlan’s Sarah, Plain and Tall A book that has a clear understanding of what is â€Å"real† is often thought to be a quality book. Although what is thought to be â€Å"real† is different for everyone, for me it is how easily I am able to relate to the characters in the book. If I can sympathize and understand what they are going through on an emotional level and can put myself in their shoes, I am more apt to enjoy the story. Narrative style and structure play a very important role here; because it is through these that we get a sense of what type of realism is being portrayed. For example, in Sarah, Plain and Tall, the realism displayed is emotional realism. In Patricia MacLachlan’s Sarah, Plain and Tall the narrative style is apparent. We know that it is the character Anna whose point of view this story is from. It is essential that it is told from her point of view, because the arrival of Sarah will ultimately affect her the most. We get a sense of the pain that she has undergone, as well as the over-whelming sense of love and pride she has for her family. As Anna explains, â€Å"†¦I didn’t tell him what I really thought. He was homely and plain, and he had a terrible holler and a horrid smell. But these were not the worst of him. Mama died the next morning. That was the worst thing about Caleb† (MacLachlan 4). It also reveals to us the tremendous amount of responsibility that is resting on her young shoulders. In addition to the point of view, in what realm it was written is also important. Is it written as a fantasy, as a truth, or as a fable? Sarah, Plain and Tall was written as realism, meaning it has a feeling that it actually happened. Although we aren't directly told when and where this story takes place, we get at good sense of it by the descriptions of their everyday life. It is these descriptions that give the book its sense of realism. For example, in chapter seven Caleb describes plowing to Sarah: Papa needs five horses for the big gang plow,’ Caleb told Sarah. ‘Prairie grass is hard’† (MacLachlan 39). Despite the lack of an in-depth depiction, we still gain a feeling of what kind of life these characters led, as well as in what time period the story takes place.

My Father: No Ordinary Man Essay -- Personal Narrative, essay about my

My father was a great fan of Mark Twain. He had a couple of Twain quotes he loved to recite, and one in particular he liked to recite around me: "When I was a boy of fourteen, my father was so ignorant I could hardly stand to have the old man around. But when I got to be twenty-one, I was astonished at how much the old man had learned in seven years." I could never really think of dad as ignorant, even when I was fourteen. He was a walking encyclopedia, an encyclopedia I consulted daily. But he was an easy man to underestimate. In part this was because he was a great listener, and like all great listeners would rather hear than be heard. That was another one of his favorite Twain quotes: "Better to keep your mouth shut and be thought a fool than to open it and remove all doubt." But he was also easy to underestimate because he tended to underestimate himself. He would have been astonished, genuinely astonished, at the outpouring of love and admiration that has washed over our family in the last week. And there is enough of my father in me that I have been astonished as well. Friends of mine, some of whom I thought barely knew dad, have called or sent word from as far away as Vienna and Taipei to say that my father changed their life for the better. My oldest friend, who is now a mountain climber and a nature photographer, astonished me by saying he might never have becom... ...e Bailey couldn't see in the movie It's A Wonderful Life. George Bailey saw himself as a very ordinary man. And because he was a man of great intellect and potential, he sometimes saw his ordinary life as a kind of failure. It was not until the angel took him out of his own life and showed him the profound connections between his life and every other life in his community, that he was finally able to see himself for the hero that he was. My father was a George Bailey. And just as George's friends came together and emptied their pockets for him when he was in trouble, all of his friends joined together in a celebration of his life. I only wish he could have seen it, because he never would have believed it. My Father: No Ordinary Man Essay -- Personal Narrative, essay about my My father was a great fan of Mark Twain. He had a couple of Twain quotes he loved to recite, and one in particular he liked to recite around me: "When I was a boy of fourteen, my father was so ignorant I could hardly stand to have the old man around. But when I got to be twenty-one, I was astonished at how much the old man had learned in seven years." I could never really think of dad as ignorant, even when I was fourteen. He was a walking encyclopedia, an encyclopedia I consulted daily. But he was an easy man to underestimate. In part this was because he was a great listener, and like all great listeners would rather hear than be heard. That was another one of his favorite Twain quotes: "Better to keep your mouth shut and be thought a fool than to open it and remove all doubt." But he was also easy to underestimate because he tended to underestimate himself. He would have been astonished, genuinely astonished, at the outpouring of love and admiration that has washed over our family in the last week. And there is enough of my father in me that I have been astonished as well. Friends of mine, some of whom I thought barely knew dad, have called or sent word from as far away as Vienna and Taipei to say that my father changed their life for the better. My oldest friend, who is now a mountain climber and a nature photographer, astonished me by saying he might never have becom... ...e Bailey couldn't see in the movie It's A Wonderful Life. George Bailey saw himself as a very ordinary man. And because he was a man of great intellect and potential, he sometimes saw his ordinary life as a kind of failure. It was not until the angel took him out of his own life and showed him the profound connections between his life and every other life in his community, that he was finally able to see himself for the hero that he was. My father was a George Bailey. And just as George's friends came together and emptied their pockets for him when he was in trouble, all of his friends joined together in a celebration of his life. I only wish he could have seen it, because he never would have believed it.

Is Technology Making us intimate Strangers? Essay

In a world of modern sophistication and changing technology it is indeed easy to get lost in a stream of gadgets like i-pods, cellular phones, laptops and etcetera. Everything is presented at your finger tips. Having a cellular phone with Wireless Fidelity (wi-fi) access will enable you to hold the world in your palm, figuratively speaking though. The amount of information and possibility of connecting to people across the globe is endless. However, as Coleman would put it, technology only gives us the illusion of intimacy. I would have to agree with that to some extent. Though technology has made countries borderless through the internet and the other devices, it also has made human connection less personal. Take for example the electronic mail (email); this innovation is now frequently used by people instead of making calls or actual face to face conversation simply because writing an email allows you to multitask. It’s easy and can be done along with your office works. But this innovation has reduced human connection into a â€Å"you’ve got mail! † status. The personal touch of a phone call or actual face to face conversation like gestures, tone of voice, facial expressions and body language are hidden from the person viewing the mail. This personal touch is viewed by communication scientists as important factors of effective human communication. If we cross them out in communicating to the people who matters to us, then how can we be truly effective in knowing what they really feel? Smileys and other graphics that we use to substitute for subtle emotions do not really reflect how we truly feel, thus we become ineffective in communicating. This then weakens the very foundation of interpersonal communication (Seirra, 2007). Everyday I see people milling around as though they are so engrossed by the gadget they have in their palm that they fail to notice a neighbor of an officemate who passed by. What more would it be at home? It could get worst. Parents can get glued to the internet and children can shut their senses from the world with their i-pods and mp3s. Through these innovations a home can house people from different worlds. However technology has its pros and cons. Just like everything that man invented, the outcome of an innovation still depends on how it is used. Technology can bridge the communication gap of lovers, families and friends who has been separated by distance and space. It can offer information at the fastest and cheapest way possible. For those who have no means of communicating face to face, a call or an email would suffice. Any innovation can be a boon or bane to society depending on how we use it. Though technology can weaken the interpersonal communication of individuals, it can also be used to strengthen it. A call or an email between friends who haven’t seen each other for quite some time can be reunited with the use of technology. A simple text to a loved one in a busy day can show them your care. However this means of communication should be just a supplement to face to face communication. At the very core of every human being is the need for attention (Seirra, 2007). It is human nature to crave for love and compassion from others, if not everyone, but from someone. I believe that technology was created for the greater good of mankind, thus, we must use technology to sustain what really matters to us. Works Cited Coleman, Jonathan. Is technology making us intimate strangers?. Newsweek. 2000 Sierra, Kathy. Why face-to-face still matters! April 13, 2006. Date retrieved October 31, 2007. http://headrush. typepad. com/creating_passionate_users/2006/04/why_facetoface_. html.

Kssr Sains

TAJUK 1| Isu-isu dalam Pendidikan Sains| SINOPSIS Topik ini membincangkan beberapa isu-isu dalam pendidikan sains. Isu-isu ini berkaitan dengan matlamat pendidikan sains, kandungan pendidikan sains, pengajaran sains dan literasi saintifik. HASIL PEMBELAJARAN 1. Mengenal pasti dan membincangkan isu-isu dalam pendidikan sains. 2. Analisis kesan-kesan isu-isu yang berkaitan dengan pendidikan sains dalam pengajaran sains di sekolah-sekolah rendah. Kerangka Tajuk-tajuk Rajah 1. 0 Kerangka tajuk ISI KANDUNGAN 1. Isu- isu Kurikulum Sains Preparing a national science curriculum that will help school students develop their scientific competencies alongside their acquisition of science knowledge requires attention to four issues. 1. Selection of science content (knowledge, skill, understanding and values) There is a consistent criticism that many of the problems and issues in science education arise from the structure of science curricula which tend to be knowledge-heavy and alienating to a si gnificant number of students.A curriculum that covers an extensive range of science ideas hampers the efforts of even the best teachers who attempt to provide engaging science learning for their students. The effect of such knowledge-laden curricula is for teachers to treat science concepts in a superficial way as they attempt to cover what is expected in the curriculum. Rather than developing understanding, students therefore have a tendency to rely on memorisation when taking tests of their science learning. The challenge is to identify the science concepts that are important and can be realistically understood by students in the learning time available.One of the realities faced in science education is that scientific knowledge is rapidly increasing. While this is valuable for our society, it adds to the pressure on the science curriculum. There is a reluctance to replace the old with the new. Rather, there is a tendency to simply add the new science ideas to the traditional ones . Accompanying this desire to retain the traditional knowledge base is a feeling that understanding this content exemplifies intellectual rigor. Obviously such a situation is not sustainable.The consequence is that many students are losing interest in science. The question then needs to be asked: what is important in a science curriculum? This paper argues that developing science competencies is important, understanding the big ideas of science is important, exposure to a range of science experiences relevant to everyday life is important and understanding of the major concepts from the different sciences is important. It is also acknowledged that there is a core body of knowledge and understanding that is fundamental to the understanding of major ideas.The paper also proposes that it is possible to provide flexibility and choice about the content of local science curriculum. The factors that influence this choice include context, local science learning opportunities, historical per spectives, contemporary and local issues and available learning resources. In managing this choice, there is a need to be conscious of the potential danger of repetition of knowledge through a student’s school life and ensure repetition is minimised and that a balanced science curriculum is provided for every student.Finally, when selecting content for a national science curriculum it is important to determine how much time can reasonably and realistically be allocated to science and within this time constraint what is a reasonable range of science concepts and skills for learning in primary and secondary school. 2. Relevance of science learning a curriculum is more likely to provide a basis for the development of scientific competencies if it is relevant to individual students, perceived to have personal value, or is presented in a context to which students can readily relate.Instead of simply emphasising what has been described as ‘canonical science concepts’, there is a need to provide a meaningful context to which students can relate (Aikenhead 2006). Furthermore, students will be better placed to understand the concepts if they can be applied to everyday experiences. To provide both context and opportunities for application takes time. To increase the relevance of science to students there is a strong case to include more contemporary (and possibly controversial) issues in the science curriculum.In doing so, it is important to note that the complexity of some scientific issues means that they do not have clear-cut solutions. Often, the relevant science knowledge is limited or incomplete so that the questions can only be addressed in terms of what may be possible or probable rather than the certainty of what will happen. Even when the risks inherent in making a particular decision are assessable by science, the cultural or social aspects also need to be taken into consideration.The school science curriculum should provide opportunities to explore these complex issues to enable students to understand that the application of science and technology to the real world is often concerned with risk and debate (Rennie 2006). Science knowledge can be applied to solve problems concerning human needs and wants. Every application of science has an impact on our environment. For this reason, one needs to appreciate that decisions concerning science applications involve constraints, consequences and risks. Such decision-making is not value-free.In developing science competencies, students need to appreciate the influence of particular values in attempting to balance the issues of constraints, consequences and risk. While many students perceive school science as difficult, the inclusion of complex issues should not be avoided on the basis that there is a potential for making science seem even more difficult. The answer is not to exclude contemporary issues, but rather to use them to promote a more sophisticated understanding of the nature of science and scientific knowledge.It is important to highlight the implications of a science curriculum that has personal value and relevance to students. This means that the curriculum cannot be a ‘one size fits all’, but rather a curriculum that is differentiated so that students can engage with content that is meaningful and satisfying and provides the opportunity for conceptual depth. In this respect the science curriculum should be built upon knowledge of how students learn, have demonstrated relevance to tudents’ everyday world, and be implemented using teaching and learning approaches that involve students in inquiry and activity. Within the flexibility of a science curriculum that caters for a broad cohort of students and a range of delivery contexts, there is a need to define what it is that students should know in each stage of schooling. In this way, students can build their science inquiry skills based on an understanding of the major ide as that underpin our scientific endeavour. 3.General capabilities and science education There is an argument, based on research within science education, that curriculum needs to achieve a better balance between the traditional knowledge-focused science and a more humanistic science curriculum that prepares students for richer understanding and use of science in their everyday world (Fensham, 2006). Beyond the science discipline area there is also pressure in some Australian jurisdictions to develop a broader general school curriculum that embraces the view of having knowledge and skills important for future personal, social and economic life.While there is much value in such futuristic frameworks, there is the danger that the value of scientific understanding may be diminished. Unless the details of the general capabilities refer specifically to science content, the importance of science may be overlooked and the curriculum time devoted to it decrease. The science curriculum can re adily provide opportunities to develop these general capabilities. Such general capabilities as thinking strategies, decision-making approaches, communication, use of information and communication technology (ICT), team work and problem solving are all important dimensions of science learning.There is an increasing number of teachers who will require assistance to structure their teaching in ways that enable students to meld the general life capabilities with the understanding and skills needed to achieve scientific competencies. Such assistance will be found in the provision of quality, adaptable curriculum resources and sustained effective professional learning. 4. Assessment When a curriculum document is prepared there is an expectation that what is written will be what is taught and what is assessed. Unfortunately, there is sometimes a considerable gap between ntended curriculum, the taught curriculum and the assessed curriculum; what can be assessed often determines what is tau ght. This disconnect is a result of the different pressures and expectations in education system. An obvious goal in curriculum development is that the intended, taught and assessed dimensions of curriculum are in harmony. The importance of assessment in curriculum development is highlighted in the process referred to as ‘backward design’ in which one works through three stages from curriculum intent to assessment expectations to finally planning learning experiences and instruction (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005).This process reinforces the simple proposition that for a curriculum to be successfully implemented one should have a clear and realistic picture of how the curriculum will be assessed. Assessment should serve the purpose of learning. Classroom assessment, however, is often translated in action as testing. It is unfortunate that the summative end-of-topic tests seem to dominate as the main tool of assessment. Senior secondary science assessment related to university entrance has long reinforced a content-based summative approach to assessment in secondary schools.To improve the quality of science learning there is a need to introduce more diagnostic and formative assessment practices. These assessment tools help teachers to understand what students know and do not know and hence plan relevant learning experiences that will be beneficial. Summative testing does have an important role to play in monitoring achievement standards and for accountability and certification purposes, but formative assessment is more useful in promoting learning.Assessment should enable the provision of detailed diagnostic information to students. It should show what they know, understand and can demonstrate. It should also show what they need to do to improve. It should be noted that the important science learning aspects concerning attitudes and skills as outlined in the paper cannot be readily assessed by pencil and paper tests. For that reason, it is important to e mphasise the need for a variety of assessment approaches. While assessment is important, it should not dominate the learning process.Structure of the curriculum There is value in differentiating the curriculum into various parts that are relevant to the needs of the students and the school structure (Fensham, 1994). 5. In regard to the school structure, the nature of the teacher’s expertise becomes a factor to consider. For early childhood teachers, their expertise lies in the understanding of how children learn. Secondary science teachers have a rich understanding of science while senior secondary teachers have expertise in a particular discipline of science. Each part would have a different curriculum focus.The four parts are: †¢ early childhood †¢ primary †¢ junior secondary †¢ senior secondary. Developing scientific competencies takes time and the science curriculum should reflect the kinds of science activities, experiences and content appropriate for students of different age levels. In sum, early science experiences should relate to self awareness and the natural world. During the primary years, the science curriculum should develop the skills of investigation, using experiences which provide opportunities to practice language literacy and numeracy.In secondary school, some differentiation of the sub-disciplines of science may be appropriate, but as local and community issues are interdisciplinary, an integrated science may be the best approach. Senior secondary science curricula should be differentiated, to provide for students who wish to pursue career-related science specializations, as well those who prefer a more general, integrated science for citizenship. Early Childhood Curriculum focus: awareness of self and the local natural world. Young children have an intrinsic curiosity about their immediate world. They have a desire to explore and investigate the things around them.Purposeful play is an important feature of thei r investigations. Observation is an important skill to be developed at this time, using all the senses in a dynamic way. Observation also leads into the idea of order that involves comparing, sorting and describing. 2. PrimaryCurriculum focus: recognising questions that can be investigated scientifically and investigating them. During the primary years students should have the opportunity to develop ideas about science that relate to their life and living. A broad range of topics is suitable including weather, sound, light, plants, animals, the night sky, materials, soil, water and movement.Within these topics the science ideas of order, change, patterns and systems should be developed. In the early years of primary school, students will tend to use a trial and error approach to their science investigations. As they progress through their primary years, the expectation is that they will begin to work in a more systematic way. The notion of a ‘fair test’ and the idea of variables will be developed, as well as other forms of science inquiry. The importance of measurement will also be fostered. 3. Junior secondaryCurriculum focus: explaining phenomena involving science and its applications.During these years, the students will cover topics associated with each of the sciences: earth and space science, life science and physical science. Within these topics it is expected that aspects associated with science for living, scienceinquiry and contemporary science would be integrated in the fields of science. While integration is the more probable approach, it is possible that topics may be developed directly from each one of these themes. For example, there may be value in providing a science unit on an open science investigation in which students conduct a study on an area of their choosing.While there may be specific topics on contemporary science aspects and issues,teachers and curriculum resources should strive to include the recent science research in a particular area. It is this recent research that motivates and excites students. In determining what topics students should study from the broad range of possibilities, it is important to exercise restraint and to avoid overcrowding the curriculum and providing space for the development of students’ science competencies alongside their knowledge and understanding of science content.Topics could include states of matter, substances and reactions, energy forms, forces and motion, the human body, diversity of life, ecosystems, the changing earth and our place in space. The big science ideas of energy, sustainability, equilibrium and interdependence should lead to the ideas of form and function that result in a deeper appreciation of evidence, models and theories. There are some students ready to begin a more specialised program science in junior secondary and differentiation as early as Year 9 may need to be considered to extend and engage these students’ interest and skills in science. . Senior Secondary. There should be at least three common courses across the country: physics, chemistry and biology. There could also be one broader-based course that provides for students wanting only one science course at the senior secondary level. It could have an emphasis on applications. The integrating themes of science for life, scientific inquiry and contemporary science should be embedded into all these courses where realistically possible. Other specialised courses could also be provided. Existing courses in the states and territories are among the possibilities available.National adoption would improve the resources to support the individual courses. (Sumber: National Curriculum Board (2008). National Science Curriculum: Initial advice. Retrieved 10 Sept. 2009 from www. acara. edu. au/verve/_†¦ /Science_Initial_Advice_Paper. pdf) | Latihan| 1. Baca kandungan diatas. 2. Nyatakan isu-isu dalam pendidikan sains yang ditemui dalam kandungan di atas. 3. Bincang dan tuliskan refleksi sebanyak dua halaman tentang kesan daripada isu-isu pengajaran sains rendah. | | Membuat Nota| Mengumpul maklumat mengenai literasi sains dan hubungannya dengan pendidikan sains dari buku atau internet.Membina peta minda untuk menyatakan maklumat yang anda telah berkumpul. | . . Senarai Semak Jawab ujian di bawah bagi menguji tahap literasi saintifik anda. Test of Scientific Literacy Answer each question with ‘true' if what the sentence most normally means is typically true and ‘false' if it is typically false. 1. | Scientists usually expect an experiment to turn out a certain way. | | 2. | Science only produces tentative conclusions that can change. | | 3. | Science has one uniform way of conducting research called â€Å"the scientific method. | | 4| Scientific theories are explanations and not facts. | | 5. | When being scientific one must have faith only in what is justified by empirical evidence. | | 6. | Science is just about the fa cts, not human interpretations of them. | | 7. | To be scientific one must conduct experiments. | | 8. | Scientific theories only change when new information becomes available. | | 9. | Scientists manipulate their experiments to produce particular results. | | 10. | Science proves facts true in a way that is definitive and final. | | 11. An experiment can prove a theory true. | | 12. | Science is partly based on beliefs, assumptions, and the nonobservable. | | 13. | Imagination and creativity are used in all stages of scientific investigations. | | 14. | Scientific theories are just ideas about how something works. | | 15. | A scientific law is a theory that has been extensively and thoroughly confirmed. | | 16. | Scientists’ education, background, opinions, disciplinary focus, and basic guiding assumptions and philosophies influence their perception and interpretation of the available data. | 17. | A scientific law will not change because it has been proven true. | | 18. | A n accepted scientific theory is an hypothesis that has been confirmed by considerable evidence and has endured all attempts to disprove it. | | 19. | A scientific law describes relationships among observable phenomena but does not explain them. | | 20. | Science relies on deduction (x entails y) more than induction (x implies y). | | 21. | Scientists invent explanations, models or theoretical entities. | | 22. | Scientists construct theories to guide further research. | 23. | Scientists accept the existence of theoretical entities that have never been directly observed. | | 24. | Scientific laws are absolute or certain. | | Jawapan 1. T|   9. T | 17. F |   Ã‚  Ã‚  | 0 wrong = A+| 2. T | 10. F | 18. T |   Ã‚  Ã‚  | 1 wrong = A| 3. F  | 11. F | 19. T |   Ã‚  Ã‚  | 2 wrong = A-| 4. T | 12. T | 20. F |   Ã‚  Ã‚  | 3 wrong = B+| 5. T | 13. T | 21. T |   Ã‚  Ã‚  | 4 wrong = B| 6. F | 14. F | 22. T |   Ã‚  Ã‚  | 5 wrong = B-| 7. F | 15. F | 23. T |   Ã‚  Ã‚  | 6 wrong = C | 8. F | 16. T | 24. F |   Ã‚  Ã‚  | 7 wrong = D| | | | | 8 or more wrong = F| RujukanFleer, M. , & Hardy. T. (2001). Science for Children: Developing a Personal Approach to Teaching. (2nd Edition). Sydney: Prentice Hall. Pg 146 – 147) National Curriculum Board (2008). National Science Curriculum: Initial advice. Retrieved on10 Sept. 2009 from :www. acara. edu. au/verve/_†¦ /Science_Initial_Advice_Paper. pdf Hazen, R. M. (2002). What is scientific literacy? Retrieved on 10 Sept. 2009 from : http://www. gmu. edu/robinson/hazen. htm | Tamat Topik 1| TAJUK 2| Kurikulum Sains Pendidikan Rendah Malaysia | SINOPSISTopik ini menggariskansejarah perkembangankurikulumsainssekolah rendahdi Malaysia. Kurikulum di Malaysia telah melaluibeberapaperubahandariKajianAlam Semulajadi, Projek Khas, Alam dan ManusiadanSainsKBSRsekarang HASIL PEMBELAJARAN 1. Menyatakan perubahan dalam kurikulum sains sekolah rendah di Malaysia. 2. Menyatakan rasional untuk perubahan dalam kurikulum sains s ekolah rendah di Malaysia. 3. Membandingbezakan kekuatan dan kelemahan setiap kurikulum sains sekolah rendah yang telah diperkenalkan di Malaysia. Kerangka Tajuk Rajah 2 : Kerangka Tajuk-TajukISI KANDUNGAN 2. 0Sains Sekolah Rendah: Mengimbas kembali Dalam sejarah perkembangan pendidikan sains sekolah rendah di Malaysia, ia boleh disimpulkan bahawa perubahan kurikulum adalah satu inovasi (Kementerian Pelajaran dan UNESCO, 1988; SEAMEO-RECSAM, 1983; SEAMEO-RECSAM, 1973). Perubahan ini juga merupakan multidimensi dalam erti kata lain ia melibatkan sekurang-kurangnya tiga dimensi dalam pelaksanaannya (Fullan, 1991). Komponen-komponennya adalah seperti berikut: (i)penggunaan bahan-bahan kurikulum yang disemak semulaatau baharu atau berteknologi; ii)penggunaan pendekatan baharu; (iii)pengubahsuaian kepercayaan, contohnya, andaian pedagogi dan teori berkenaan polisi baharu atau inovasi. Di Malaysia, semua perubahan kurikulum yang berlaku akan dilaksanakan oleh Kementerian Pendidikan dan ak an disebarkan kepada semua sekolah-sekolah di negara ini. 2. 1Kajian Alam Semulajadi Pada akhir abad kesembilan belas hingga pertengahan abad kedua puluh, sains diajar di sekolah rendah sebagai Kajian Alam Semulajadi, melibatkan pengetahuan tentang fakta-fakta dan hukum-hukum alam semulajadi sebagai asas penyiasatan saintifik.This approach had the advantage that students were encouraged to learn through careful observation and classification, but it ignored much of the natural environment that had an impact on students’ lives(Keeves and Aikenhead, 1995). Pengajaran sains di peringkat sekolah rendah telah dilaksanakan dalam semua bidang (botani, biologi, sains bumi, kimia dan fizik) secara beransur-ansur dan dihubungkaitkan dengan persekitaran dan pengalaman seharian murid. 2. 2Projek Khas KajianAlam Semulajadi telahdigantikan dengansukatan pelajaranSainsRendahpada tahun 1965.Inovasiini telah diadaptasikandariNuffield Junior Science project,UK (1964),tetapidisesuaikandengan ke perluantempatan. Kurikulumberasaskan subjek, di manatumpuan adalahpadapenguasaanpengetahuan saintifikdan bukannyaciri-cirimurid. Kebanyakanguru-gurusainsdisekolah rendah, terutamanyadi kawasan luar bandar mempunyai latar belakangpendidikan yang rendah (terdiri darigredenamhinggasembilaniaituhanya enamhinggasembilan tahunpersekolahanasas) tetapijuga telahmenerima latihanprofesionalyangtidak mencukupidalammetodologisains dan kandungan dalam mata pelajaranitusendiri.Mereka jugadilatih sebagai guru untukmengajarsemuamata pelajaransekolahrendah. Banyakamalan dalam bilik darjahberpusatkanbuku teks danpenghafalannota. Pencapaian prestasi murid-murid didapati lemah di sekolah-sekolah rendah luar bandar, terutamanya dalam bidang sains, maka Kementerian Pelajaran telah memperkenalkan Projek Sains Rendah Khas (Projek Khas) pada tahun 1968. Projek ini menggunakan pendekatan baharu untuk pengajaran sains bagi sukatan pelajaran yang sedia ada.Rasional memperkenalkan pendekatan pengajaran yang bah aru dan bukannya perubahan kurikulum adalah kerana Kementerian Pelajaran mendapati bahawa guru-guru sudah biasa dengan sukatan pelajaran yang sedia ada. Langkah ini telah mengurangkan trauma guru-guru terhadap perubahan kurikulum. Kurikulum telah diambil daripada Council Science 5 – 13 project, UK(1967) dan projek-projek sains yang lain di Amerika Syarikat, seperti Science- A Process Approach (1967), yang telah dilaksanakan pada masa itu, tetapi disesuaikan dengan keperluan tempatan.Ia menekankan pengajaran berpusatkan murid, berorientasikan aktiviti, dan pembelajaran penemuan melalui penggunaan buku kerja. Ia juga menyediakan perkhidmatan sokongan guru yang berterusan dalam melaksanakan sukatan pelajaranyang sedia ada, terutamanya di kawasan luar bandar. Buku Panduan guru, buku kerja dan bahan-bahan yang digunakan adalah berorientasikan penyiasatan telah dihasilkan untuk Darjah Satu ke Darjah Enam. Ketua Pengarah Pelajaran pada masa itu, Haji Hamdan bin Sheikh Tahir, menulis dalam halaman pengenalan semua buku panduan, Objective of this Special Project is to equip teachers with new teaching methodology in the hope of generating pupils who will be able to experiment and think and really know all the concepts that will be taught by the teacher. All the activities suggested in the guide-book will reduce the pupils’ reliance on rote learning and encourage them to gain experiences in a concept that is taught. It is hoped that pupils will be attracted to science not only in the primary schools but also in the secondary schools. † (Standard One Science Guide-book, 1971)Pada tahun 1970, satu pelan tindakan telah disediakan bertujuan untuk menentukan tarikh bagi melengkapkan setiap fasa dalam projek khas ini. Pensyarah-pensyarah maktab latihan guru dan guru-guru sekolah sains rendah telah dihantar berkursus di luar negara untuk mendapatkan pengalaman terus berkenaan model kurikulum dan bahan-bahan yang digunakan di sana dan membuat penyesuaian untu k keperluan tempatan. Apabila kembali ke tanahair, mereka dipinjamkan ke Pusat Sains, kini Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum (CDC) untuk menulis dan menyediakan buku panduan guru.Penulisan buku panduan mengikuti pola umum. Pertama, sukatan pelajaran standard yang diberikan telah dikaji semula dan dibincang bersama semua kakitangan yang terlibat dalam pendidikan sains seperti pensyarah universiti, pelatih guru, pemeriksa sekolah, pembangun kurikulum dan guru-guru. Topik-topik yang disusun semula(jikaperlu), dan jenis pengalaman yang boleh disediakan bagi murid-murid telah dikenal pasti. Seterusnya, pelbagai sumber telah diteliti untuk idea-idea yang relevan dan berguna.Kemudian, pendekatan umum yang digariskan telah dilaksanakan kajian rintis dan draf telah dikaji semula. Akhir sekali, buku panduanini telah siap ditulis, hasildari bengkel-bengkelpenulisan, pengumpulanbahan-bahankurikulumdariseluruhdunia, terutamanya bahan-bahan dariprojek-projekyangtelahdisokong olehpenyelidikan dankajian rintis yang dikendalikandalam situasibilik darjahsebenar. Malangnya, bahan-bahan yangdisimpantelahmusnah dalam kebakarandi Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum sekitarbulanApril, 1997.Beberapa sekolah-sekolah khas yang dikenali sebagai ‘pusat-pusat aktiviti' telah ditubuhkan untuk menampung penyebaran pengetahuan dan sumber untuk guru sekolah rendah di semua negeri. Guru-guru juga dilatih untuk menjadi juru latih utama bagi projel khas ini. Pada tahun 1970, empat puluh guru dari tiga puluh pusat-pusat ini telah dilatih khas di Kuala Lumpur. Guru-guru yang dilantik sebagai jurulatih, kemudian kembali ke sekolah-sekolah mereka masing-masing untuk melatih guru-guru yang mengajar Darjah Satu pada tahun 1971 untuk menggunakan panduan-buku dan lembaran kerja.Latihan ini diteruskan sehingga Darjah Enam. Oleh itu, juru latih utama dan guru-guru yang dilatih oleh mereka dalam kursus-kursus dalam perkhidmatan bukan sahaja dilatih, tetapi juga bertindak sebagai agen perubahan di sekolah-sekolah mereka dengan menyebarkan teknik-teknik yang diperoleh kepada guru-guru lain. Guru juga dimaklumkan tentang bahan-bahan pengajaran yang terkini dan maklum balas melalui edaran buletin yang dihasilkan oleh ‘pusat-pusat aktiviti'. Soal selidik menilai juga telah diberikan kepada guru-guru untuk memantau proses pelaksanaan dan membuat penambahbaikan berdasarkan maklum balas dan cadangan.Sepanjang projek ini, pensyarah maktab latihan guru juga terlibat dalam menyumbangkan kepakaran dan memberi latihan. Walau bagaimanapun, kekurangan tenaga pengajar terlatih menghalang aliran latihan dan pelaksanaan inovasi. Jadualperancanganyang tidak realistikgagalmengambil kiramasalahyang wujudsemasapelaksanaan. LaporanyangdibuatolehperwakilanMalaysiadiseminarSEAMEO-RECSAM pada tahun 1973bertajuk InovasiDalamKurikulumSainsSekolah Rendah DanMatematikDanMasalahPelaksanaanDi Malaysia. â€Å"The cost of curriculum development and implementation has got to be paid in time, not merely in cash and pe rsonnel.The ultimate price of having to untangle knots of mis-implementation as a result of hurried efforts will be more than whatever time is saved in pushing through an ill-planned ‘crash programme. † (Ali Razak, 1973; p. 218) Tiada jalan pintas untuk pembangunan kurikulum. Walaupun pada mulanya dirancang untuk melengkapkan penulisan buku panduan dalam tempoh dua tahun, tetapi akhirnya ia mengambil masa empat tahun. Proses pelaksanaan mengambil masa selama tujuh tahun. 2. 3Alam dan ManusiaPandangan lain mengenai pembangunan dan pelaksanaan ‘Projek Khas' telah diminta. Seorang yang bukan ahli sains, Tan Sri Profesor Awang Had Salleh (1983), yang merupakan Naib Canselor Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia pada masa itu, telah diminta memberi komen dan mengulas mengenai kurikulum sains sekolah rendah. It does provide for what might be called science literacy, but the orientation of the syllabus is towards mastery of scientific facts with little emphasis on social and rel igious meaning and significance of scientific discoveries.In other words, the syllabus is cognitively orientated with little attention given to the affective domain of educational objectives†¦ The orientation of the textbooks reinforces memory work and encourages very little, if at all, enquiry skills. .. The teaching of science subjects seems to be guided almost entirely by two powerful variables, namely, examination and textbooks. † (Awang Had Salleh, 1983; p. 63 – 64) Pandangan-pandangan ini mewujudkan beberapan persoalan : â€Å"What is science education for? What kind of pupils and society do we want to produce? Pandangan-pandangan ini menyebabkan perubahan radikal dalam pendidikan sains. Ia termasuk pendekatan pelbagai disiplin kepada pendidikan sains di mana motivasi untuk belajar dipermudahkan melalui kandungan sains kepada masalah sebenar alam sekitar. Penekanan diberi kepada kemahiran asas dalam pendidikan dan sains yang merupakan sebahagian daripada isi kandungan dalam mata pelajaran. Alam dan Manusia dalam KBSR. Kurikulum itu diperkenalkan pada tahun 1982 sebagai kajian rintis dan dilaksanakan sepenuhnya di semua sekolah rendah pada tahun 1983.Terdapat tiga komponen utama dalam mata pelajaran Alam dan Manusia iaitu: manusia, alam sekitar, dan interaksi manusia dan alam sekitar. Hubungan antara ketiga-tiga komponen itu ditunjukkan dalam Rajah 1. Bersepadu adalah perkataan yang utama dalam kurikulum sebagai kaedah untuk mengurangkan beban kandungan dan komponen-komponen disiplin dalam kurikulum yang terdahulu. Bersepadu dalam merentas kurikulum merangkumi sains, sejarah, geografi, sains kesihatan dan sivik. Terdapat juga kajian persekitaran untuk mewujudkan perkaitan sains sosial kepada dunia di luar bilik darjah.Kesepaduan hubungan antara manusia dan alam sekitar wujud melalui pendekatan siasatan dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Di samping itu, terdapat kesepaduan antara bidang, di mana kandungan kurikulum dimasukkan ke dalam st ruktur konsep dimana terdapat tema konsep tertentu melalui proses inkuiri. Komunikasi Nilai Murni Sains sosial Sains Kesihatan Manusia Dunia Fizikal PendidikansiansKreativiti Hubungan Kemahiran Hidup alamsekitar Sains dan Teknologi Alam sekeliling Rajah 1 : Kerangka Alam dan Manusia (Source: Sufean Hussain et. al. , 1988). Mata pelajaran Alam dan Manusia menekankan tiga aspek yang luas. Pertama, untuk membangunkan pengetahuan murid mengenai manusia, alam sekitar, masyarakat dan interaksi antara mereka. Kedua, untuk meningkatkan kemahiran siasatan dan pemikiran dan penggunaan kemahiran ini dalam menyelesaikan masalah.Ketiga, untuk menerapkan nilai-nilai moral dan sikap murid-murid ke arah hidup yang harmoni dalam masyarakat majmuk (‘ Alam dan Manusia ‘ sukatan pelajaran, 1984). Terdapat lima tema utama dalam sukatan Alam dan Manusia. Ianya bertujuan supaya murid-murid dapat memahami, menghargai dan menyemai kasih sayang terhadap alam sekitar dan dengan itu, membangunkan cintakan negara. Tidak seperti Projek Khas yang diperkenalkan mulai Tahun Satu hingga Tahun Enam , Alam dan Manusia mula diperkenalkan di peringkat tahap dua iaitu dari Tahun Empat hingga Tahun Enam .Bagi melaksanakan kurikulum baru ini, diadakan kursus orientasi selama satu minggu kepada guru-guru sains . Selepas kursus itu, pihak Kementerian Pendidikan menganggap bahawa tugas mereka telah di pertanggungjawabkan kepada guru-guru dan tiada sebab untuk mereka mengatakan bahawa mereka tidak mempunyai pengetahuan yang mencukupi dan cara untuk mengajar subjek sains (Syed Zin, 1990). Batasan inovasi ini digambarkan oleh Syed Zin (1990) kajian ke atas pelaksanaannya di empat buah sekolah rendah di Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia.Antara batasan utama ialah kekurangan kompetensi guru-guru dalam mengintegrasikan kandungan subjek dan menggunakan pendekatan siasatan dalam pengajaran, kurangnya latihan dalam perkhidmatan dan sokongan profesional dari segi kakitangan dan kepakaran; kekangan fizikal se perti saiz kelas yang besar dan kemudahan yang tidak mencukupi; kurang jelas dalam reka bentuk inovasi; kekaburan dalam spesifikasi kurikulum dan skop dan jarak masa yang tidak mencukupi antara percubaan dan pelaksanaan inovasi bagi penambahbaikan yang dibuat.Akibat daripada inovasi, guru-guru telah dibebani dengan beban kerja tambahan, mengakibatkan guru menjadi cemas, hilang keyakinan dalam pengajaran, bergantung kepada buku teks dan tidak memaksimumkan penggunaan bahan-bahan kurikulum. Pelaksanaan kurikulum ini hanya berlaku sebahagian sahaja kerana guru-guru tidak menggunakan strategi pedagogi dan bahan-bahan yang dicadangkan. Guru-guru masih menekankan pemerolehan pengetahuan melalui fakta ,melalui kaedah deduktif berbanding dengan pendekatan siasatan. Tiada bukti bahawa ada perubahan dalam kepercayaan dan nilai guru ke arah inovasi.Alam dan Manusia , menekankan kurikulum humanistik iaitu kesepaduan disiplin, pendekatan siasatan dalam pembelajaran, meningkatkan kemahiran berfik ir dan penerapan nilai-nilai moral. Kajian Alam Semulajadi dan Sains Rendah adalah relevan dalam pendekatan pengajaran sains. Ia dapat menarik minat kanak-kanak dan memberi makna kepada kanak-kanak kerana berkaitan dengan pengalaman harian mereka. Ia disesuaikan dengan perkembangan kognitif mereka. Dalam Projek Khas, pendekatan baru dalam pengajaran melalui penggunaan buku panduan dan bahan-bahan yang sesuai untuk membangunkan kognitif kanak-kanak diberi tumpuan. 2. 4Sains KBSR.Sukatan pelajaran sains sekolah rendah dalam KBSR telah digubal berpandukan Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan dan prinsip-prinsip Rukunegara. KBSR adalah pendekatan bersepadu kepada pengetahuan, kemahiran dan nilai-nilai, pembangunan keseluruhan individu, peluang sama rata untuk pendidikan dan pendidikan sepanjang hayat. Tujuan utama KBSR adalah untuk menyediakan pendidikan asas untuk semua murid-murid dan memastikan perkembangan potensi murid-murid. secara menyeluruh. Perkembangan potensi murid-murid secara men yeluruh termasuk pembangunan intelek, rohani, fizikal dan emosi serta pembangunan diri dan memupuk nilai-nilai moral serta sikap.Sukatan pelajaran sains sekolah rendah direka untuk menampung prinsip-prinsip dan matlamat KBSR. (a)Matlamat dan Objektif KBSR Matlamat sukatan pelajaran sains sekolah rendah adalah untuk memupuk budaya sains dan teknologi dengan memberi tumpuan kepada pembangunan individu yang dapat menguasai pengetahuan dan kemahiran saintifik, memiliki nilai-nilai moral, dinamik dan progresif supaya ada tanggungjawab terhadap alam sekitar dan menghargai alam semula jadi. (Buku Panduan KBSR , Kementerian Pelajaran, 1993). Ini dapat dicapai dengan menyediakan peluang pembelajaran untuk murid-murid untuk belajar melalui pengalaman supaya mereka akan dapat; membangunkan kemahiran berfikir †¢ membangunkan kemahiran saintifik siasatan †¢ meningkatkan minat terhadap alam sekitar †¢ memahami diri dan persekitaran mereka melalui pemerolehan pengetahuan, pemahaman, fakta dan konsep †¢ menyelesaikan masalah dan membuat keputusan yang bertanggungjawab †¢ menangani sumbangan dan inovasi terkini dalam bidang sains dan teknologi †¢ mengamalkan nilai-nilai moral dan sikap saintifik dalam kehidupan seharian †¢ menghargai sumbangan sains dan teknologi kepada kehidupan yang lebih baik †¢ menghargai perintah dan penciptaan alam (Buku Panduan Sukatan Pelajaran Sains Sekolah Rendah, 1993, ms. ) Menurut Lewis dan Potter (1970) objektif di atas boleh diklasifikasikan kepada tiga tujuan utama pendidikan sains. Mereka mempercayai melalui (1) latihan kemahiran proses inkuiri (2) pemerolehan fakta dan kefahaman konsep (3) sikap yang sesuai dan dihajati dapat dikembangkan. Ketiga-tiga tujuan ini dinyatakan dalam silabus PSS sebagai objektif pencapaian yang kemudian dibahagi kepada objektif umum dan khusus bergantung kepada perkembangan kognitif murid-murid. Objektif umum adalah kenyataan untuk menerangkan pencapaian objektif yang ingin dicapai dalam domain kognitif,afektif dan psikomoto.Objektif khusus adalah huraian kepada objektif umum dan dinyatakan dalam bentuk tingkahlaku yang boleh diukur. Objektif pencapaian diiringi dengan cadangan-cadangan untuk pengalaman belajar yang membolehkan guru merancang aktiviti-aktiviti yang bersesuaian bagi mencapai objektif. (b)Kemahiran proses dan kemahiran berfikir Penguasaan kemahiran proses, kemahiran manipulatif dan kemahiran berfikir adalah ditekankan dalam sukatan PSS (Primary School Science/ Sains Sekolah Rendah). Ketiga-tiga kemahiran tersebut adalah saling berkaitan dengan pemikiran secara kritikal,kreatif dan analitik .Kemahiran proses yang dikenalpasti adalah kemahiran memerhati, mengkelasan,mengukur dan menggunakan nombor,membuat inferen,membuat ramalan, berkomunikasi, mengenalpasti hubungan ruang dan masa,mengintepretasi data, mendefinasi secara operasi, mengawal dan memanipulasi pembolehubah,membina hipotesis dan mengeksperimen. Kemahiran manipulatif adalah kema hiran psikomotor seperti mengendali,membersih dan menyimpan alat radas sains, mengendali secara selamat spesimen hidup, dan melukis secara betul spesinen dan alat radas (PSS Syllabus Handbook, 1993 m. s. 3 – 5). (c)Sikap dan nilaiSukatan PSS juga untuk menyemai sikap saintifik dan nilai yang positif ke dalam diri murid seperti minat , sifat ingin tahu kepada dunia disekeliling, kejujuran, ketepatan dalam mereko, mengesahkan data,keluwesan dan keterbukaan minda,kesabaran,kerjasama,bertanggungjawab terhadap diri sendiri,orang lain dan alam sekitar,bersyukur kepada tuhan dan menghargai sumbangan sains dan teknologi perkembangan positif sikap dan nilai perlu menjadi matlamat akhir pendidikan. (PSS Syllabus Handbook, 1993, m. s. 3 – 6). Menurut Lewis dan Potter (1970), (d)Isi kandungan PSS dilihat sebagai suatu bidang ilmu dan juga sebagai pendekatan inkuiri.Sebagai suatu bidang ilmu,sains menyediakan suatu kerangka untuk murid-murid memahami persekitaran mereka melalui apl ikasi prinsip sains dalam kehidupan harian. Pendekatan inkuiri membolehkan murid melakukan penyiasatan pada dunia di sekeliling mereka. Ini akan menggalakkan muridmenjadi kreatif,berfikiran terbuka,toleransi ,mencintai dan menghargai alam sekitar. Prinsip kesepaduan dikekalkan dalam sukatan PSS sejajar dengan KBSR. Wujud kesepaduan yang merentasi matapelajaran lain seperti biologi,fizik dan kimia melalui penggunaan konsep dan proses sains. Pendekatan secara tema digunakan dalam mengolah isi kandungan .Pada tahap I sekolah rendah dalam Tahun 1, isi kandungan dibahagikan kepada dua bahagian: Bahagian A dan B . Pada Tahap II sekolah rendah, tema dibina mengenai manusia dan penerokaan persekitaran. Lima bidang penyiasatan adalah: 0 Alam Hidupan 1 Alam Fizikal 2 Alam Bahan 3 Bumi Dan Alam Semesta 4 Dunia Teknologi Persekitaran hidup menyiasat keperluan asas dan proses kehidupan manusia,binatang dan tumbuhan. Alam fizikal menyentuh konsep ruang dan masa dan fenomena tenaga. Alam bahan mem buat perbandingan antara bahan semulajadi dan bahan buatan manusia . unia dan alam semesta meneliti bumi dan hubungannya dengan matahari,bulan dan planet-planet lain dalam sistem solar. Akhirnya dunia teknologi, menyiasat perkembangan teknologi dalam bidang pertanian,komunikasi,pengangkutan dan pembinaan dan sumbangannya dalam kesejahteraan kehidupan manusia. Setiap bidang penerokaan adalah untuk mencapai kesepaduan dalaman secara melintang supaya apa yang dipelajari hari ini mampu dihubungkaitkan dengan apa yang dipelajari kelmarin dan apa yang akan dipelajari esok dan kesepaduan menegak supaya apa yang dipelajari dalam sesuatu bidang seharusnya berkait dengan bidang penerokaan yang lain.Satu ciri yang penting tentang sains adalah setiap murid seharusnya mencapai tahap minimum kefahaman dan pengalaman dalam setiap disiplin sains. (e) Strategi pengajaran Sukatan PSS merujuk kepada dua pandangan tentang pembelajaran sains. ; pandangan proses dan pandangan konstruktivis. Pandangan pro ses menyokong pendekatan inkuiri (Livermore, 1964). pandangan konstruktivis menyokong kenyataan bahawa murid mengambil bahagian secara aktif dan kreatif dalam membina ilmu kendiri berasaskan pengetahuan sedia ada mereka dari pengalaman yang lalu. (Duit dan Treagust, 1995; Harlen, 1992).Oleh yang demikian strategi pengajaran yang digunakan untuk pengajaran dan pembelajaran sains adalah pembelajaran secara penemuan di mana hasil pembelajaran adalah akiviti-aktiviti murid-murid dan bukan berpusatkan guru. Peranan guru hanya sebagai fasilitator,menyediakan pengalaman ‘hands-on’ menggalakkan murid bertanyakan soalan di mana jawapan akan di cari secara inkuiri tidak hanya menyampaikan ilmu. Guru membimbing murid untuk meneroka sendiri prinsip-prinsip dan konsep sains dengan mengguna idea sendiri untuk melakukan eksperimen,perbincangan,simulasi dan projek. PSS Syllabus Handbook, 1993, m. s. 9). (f)Bahan-Bahan Kurikulum ‘Curriculum materials are basic essentials of scient ific activity in the primary school’ (The International Encyclopaedia of Education, Vol. 9). (i)Tahap I sekolah rendah (Tahun 1,2 dan 3) Dalam PSS (Primary School Science ) Tahap 1 (diimplementasi pada Januari 2003 dalam bahasa Inggeris ),bahan-bahan kukrikulum adalah dalam bentuk pakej yang mengandungi buku panduan guru ,buku aktiviti untuk murid, huraian sukatan untuk guru dan CD-ROMs sebagai sokongan dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran.Guru-guru yang mengajar sains juga dibekalkan dengan komputer riba dan LCD untuk mengintegrasikan penggunaan teknologi ke dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran sains. (ii)Tahap II sekolah rendah ( Tahun 4,5 and 6) Dalam tahun 4, 5 dan 6 (diimplementasi pada Disember 1994 dalam Bahasa Inggeris), bahan-bahan kurikulum adalah dalam bentuk pakej yang mengandungi buku teks guru,buku teks murid, buku pukal bimbingan dan latihan (PULSAR) untuk guru yang mengandungi 12 modul. Guru juga menggunakan pelbagai buku teks komersial,buku kerja,carta dan bahan lu t sinar. g)Kumpulan sasaran PSS adalah wajib bagi semua murid-murid di sekolah rendah (h)Peruntukan masa Di sekolah rendah, matapelajaran sains diperuntukan 3 waktu seminggu selama 30 minit setiap waktu manakala di sekolah menengah diperuntukkan 5 waktu seminggu selama 30 minit setiap waktu. (i)Pentaksiran Prosedur Pentaksiran dalam KSSR terdiri dari dua bahagian: pentaksiran formatif dan pentaksiran sumatif. Murid-murid ditaksir pada tiga aspek sukatan pelajaran; pengetahuan,kemahiran,sikap dan nilai (KSSR Syllabus Handbook, 1993, m. s. 11- 12).Pentaksiran formatif adalah pentaksiran berasaskan sekolah dalam bentuk ujian bertulis,ujian amali,projek,portfolio, kerja lisan dan kerja kumpulan. Tujuan utama adalah untuk mengesan kelemahan murid dan memperkasakan pembelajaran. Pentaksiran sumatif biasanya terbahagi kepada dua iaitu pentaksiran kerja amali (PEKA) dan UPSR. PEKA adalah penilaian yang berterusan untuk mengukur sejauh mana murid-murid telah menguasai kemahiran proses sains dan kemahiran manipulatif sains (Guide to PEKA, 1997). Ianya telah di implementasi dalam tahun enam untuk tempoh enam bulan.Berdasarkan kepada penialaian berasaskan kriteria yang dibangunkan oleh Lembaga Peperiksaan Malaysia ,KPM, guru-guru merancang beberapa siri eksperimen untuk menilai murid di dalam bilik darjah. Instrumen penilaian adalah skala berkadar dan portfolio. Murid-murid dinilai pada lapan kemahiran proses; memerhati, membuat pengkelasan, mengukur dan menggunakan nombor, berkomunikasi, menggunakkan hubungan ruang-masa, mendefinisikan secara operasi, mengawal pembolehubah-pembolehubah dan menjalankan eksperimen.Mereka juga akan dinilai pada lima kemahiran manipulatif; mengguna dan mengendalikan bahan-bahan dan alat radas sains dengan betul, mengendalikan spesimen yang mati dan hidup dengan selamat, melukis specimen,bahan dan alat radas dengan tepat, membersihkan alat radas sains dengan betul, dan menyimpan bahan dan alatan sains denan baik dan selamat. Pentaksiran kepad a aptitud, sikap dan nilai juga dibina dalam item ujian PEKA. Pentaksiran lain adalah UPSR, di mana ianya merupakan suatu bentuk penilaian bertujuan untuk melihat sejauh mana sistem pendidikan menyediakan murid-murid untuk kurikulum sekolah menengah.Ianya adalah ujian bertulis yang mengandungi dua bahagian; bahagian A dan bahagian B. Bahagian A mengandungi tiga puluh soalan aneka pilihan dan bahagian B mengandungi lima soalan berstruktur. Peruntukan markah untuk bahagian A adalah 30 markah dan bahagian B adalah 20 markah. Penekanan diberikan kepada soalan-soalan dalam bahagian B yang menguji kebolehan murid-murid berfikir secara kritis dan kreatif. Untuk mendapat keputusan yang baik dalam peperiksaan sains, murid harus lulus pada Bahagian B. Yang menariknya markah yang dicapai dalam PEKA, tidak menyumbang terus kepada pencapaian keseluruhan markah dalam UPSR.Ini mungkin akan menjejaskan penyalahgunaan sistem dimana penilaian dalam PEKA tidak dijalankan secara serius oleh guru-guru k erana ianya bersifat terlalu subjektif. (Reference: Tan, J. N. (1999). The Development and Implementation of The Primary School Science Curriculum in Malaysia. Unpublished PhD thesis of the University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom. ) | Latihan| 1Tulis satu laporan perubahan dalam kurikulum sains sekolah rendah di Malaysia. 2. Nyatakan rasional perubahan dalam kurikulum sains sekolah rendah di Malaysia. 3.Lukis jadual untuk membuat pembandingan bagi setiap kurikulum sains sekolah rendah yang telah dilaksanakan di Malaysia, | Memikir| Kajian kurikulum sains sekolah rendah sekarang. Bincangkan dan tulis laporan sama ada kurikulum ini adalah adaptasi, pengubahsuaian atau pendekatan baru daripada kurikulum sebelumnya. Rujukan Tan, J. N. (1999). The Development and Implementation of The Primary School Science Curriculum in Malaysia. Unpublished PhD thesis of the University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom. Pusat Pembangunan Kurikulum (2002). Huraian Sukatan Pelajaran Sain s. Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia | Tamat Topik 2|TAJUK 3| Kurikulum Sains Pendidikan Rendah Malaysia I| SINOPSIS Topik ini mengkaji objektif, hasil pembelajaran, penekanan, organisasi kandungan dan skop Kurikulum Sains Pendidikan Rendah Malaysia . HASIL PEMBELAJARAN 1. Menerangkan penekanan Falsafah Pendidikan Sains Kebangsaan. 2. Menyatakan matlamat dan objektif kurikulum sains sekolah rendah KBSR 3. Membincangkan cabaran-cabaran yang terlibat dalam menggabungkan kurikulum sains sekolah rendah KBSR dalam pengajaran sains. 4. Menjelaskan organisasi isi kandungan dalam kurikulum sains sekolah rendah KBSR Kerangka Tajuk-tajukRajah 3. 0 Kerangka Tajuk ISI KANDUNGAN 3. 1Objektif Matlamat kurikulum sains sekolah rendah adalah untuk memupuk minat dan kreativiti murid melalui pengalaman dan siasatan setiap hari yang menggalakkan pemerolehan pengetahuan sains dan kemahiran berfikir disamping menerapkan sikap saintifik dan nilai-nilai murni. 3. 2Hasil Pembelajaran Peringkat satu Kurikulum S ains bertujuan : 1. Memupuk minat dan merangsang perasaan ingin tahu murid tentang dunia di sekeliling mereka. 2. Menyediakan murid dengan peluang-peluang untuk mengembangkan kemahiran proses sains dan kemahiran berfikir. . Membangunkan kreativiti murid. 4. Menyediakan murid dengan pengetahuan asas dan konsep sains 5. Menyemai sikap saintifik dan nilai-nilai positif. 6. Menyedari kepentingan memelihara dan menyayangi alam sekitar Peringkat dua Kurikulum Sains bertujuan : 1. Memupuk minat dan merangsang perasaan ingin tahu murid tentang dunia di sekeliling mereka. 2. Menyediakan murid dengan peluang-peluang untuk mengembangkan kemahiran proses sains dan kemahiran berfikir. 3. Membangunkan kreativiti murid. 4. Menyediakan murid dengan pengetahuan asas dan konsep sains 5.Menyediakan peluang pembelajaran untuk murid mengaplikasi pengetahuan dan kemahiran secara kreatif, kritikal dan analitikal bagi menyelesaikan masalah dan membuat keputusan. 6. Menyemai sikap saintifik dan nilai-nilai positif. 7. Menghargai sumbangan sains dan teknologi ke arah pembangunan negara dan kesejahteraan manusia. 8. Menyedari kepentingan memelihara dan menyayangi alam sekitar 3. 3Penekanan Sains menekankan penyiasatan dan penyelesaikan masalah. Dalam penyiasatan dan proses penyelesaian masalah, kemahiran dan pemikiran saintifik digunakan.Kemahiran saintifik penting dalam mana-mana penyiasatan saintifik seperti menjalankan eksperimen dan projek. Kemahiran saintifik terdiri daripada kemahiran proses sains dan kemahiran manipulasi Berfikir merupakan satu proses mental yang memerlukan seseorang individu mengintegrasikan pengetahuan, kemahiran dan sikap dalam usaha memahami alam sekitar. Salah satu objektif sistem pendidikan negara adalah untuk meningkatkan keupayaan berfikir murid-murid. Objektif ini boleh dicapai melalui kurikulum yang menekankan pembelajaran berfikrah. Pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang menekankan kemahiran berfikir adalah asas untuk pembelajaran berfikrah.Pembelajaran berf ikrah dapat dicapai sekiranya murid terlibat secara aktif dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Aktiviti perlu dirancang untuk memberi peluang kepada murid menggunakan kemahiran berfikir dalam pengkonseptualan, menyelesaikan masalah dan membuat keputusan. Kemahiran berfikir boleh dikategorikan kepada kemahiran pemikiran kritis dan kreatif. Seseorang yang berfikir secara kritis sentiasa menilai sesuatu idea secara sistematik sebelum menerimanya. Seseorang yang berfikir secara kreatif mempunyai tahap imaginasi yang tinggi, mampu untuk menjana idea-idea asal dan inovatif, dan mengubah suai idea dan produk.Strategi pemikiran adalah kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi yang melibatkan pelbagai langkah. Setiap langkah melibatkan pelbagai kemahiran berfikir kritis dan kreatif. Keupayaan untuk merangka strategi pemikiran adalah bermatlamat untuk memperkenalkan aktiviti-aktiviti berfikir dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran . Pengalaman pembelajaran sains boleh digunakan sebagai satu cara untuk m enyemai sikap saintifik dan nilai-nilai murni dalam diri pelajar. Penerapan sikap saintifik dan nilai-nilai murni secara amnya berlaku melalui perkara berikut * Menyedari kepentingan dan keperluan sikap saintifik dan nilai-nilai murni. Memberi penekanan kepada sikap dan nilai-nilai ini. * Mengamal dan menghayati sikap saintifik dan nilai-nilai murni Apabila merancang aktiviti pengajaran dan pembelajaran, guru perlu memberi pertimbangan yang sewajarnya kepada perkara di atas bagi memastikan penerapan sikap dan nilai saintifik yang berterusan . 3. 4Organisasi Kandungan Kurikulum sains dianjurkan secara bertema. Setiap tema terdiri daripada pelbagai bidang pembelajaran, setiap satunya terdiri daripada beberapa objektif pembelajaran. Objektif pembelajaran mempunyai satu atau lebih hasil pembelajaran.Hasil pembelajaran ditulis dengan menyatakan hasil tingkah laku yang boleh diukur, kriteria dan situasi. Secara umum, hasil pembelajaran bagi setiap objektif pembelajaran dinyatakan tahap ke sukarannya. Walau bagaimanapun, dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran, aktiviti-aktiviti pembelajaran harus dirancang dengan cara yang holistik dan bersepadu yang membolehkan pencapaian hasil pembelajaran yang pelbagai mengikut keperluan dan konteks tertentu. Guru seharusnya mengelak daripada menggunakan strategi pengajaran yang mengasingkan setiap hasil pembelajaran yang dinyatakan di dalam Spesifikasi Kurikulum.Cadangan Aktiviti Pembelajaran memberi maklumat tentang skop dan dimensi hasil pembelajaran. Aktiviti-aktiviti pembelajaran yang dinyatakan di bawah lajur Cadangan Aktiviti Pembelajaran diberi dengan tujuan untuk menyediakan beberapa panduan tentang bagaimana hasil pembelajaran boleh dicapai. Aktiviti yang dicadangkan boleh meliputi satu atau lebih hasil pembelajaran. Guru boleh mengubahsuai cadangan aktiviti yang sesuai dengan kebolehan dan gaya pembelajaran murid-murid mereka. Guru juga digalakkan mereka bentuk aktiviti pembelajaran yang inovatif dan berkesan untuk men ingkatkan pembelajaran sains . | Latihan|Jawab soalan-soalan berikut. (Rujuk Kurikulum Spesifikasi Sains Rendah. ) Kurikulum Sains Pendidikan Rendah Malaysia I 1. Berikan dua dokumen penting yang mesti dirujuk oleh guru bagi memahami Kurikulum Sains Rendah. Apakah tujuan utama setiap dokumen tersebut? 2. Kurikulum Sains Rendah digubal selaras dengan Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan (FPK). Nyatakan empat elemen penting yang ditekankan dalam FPK 3. Nyatakan matlamat Kurikulum Sains Rendah. Bagaimana matlamat ini selaras dengan aspirasi FPK? 4. Senarai semua objektif Kurikulum Sains Rendah. Apakah perbezaan di antara objektif kurtikulum Tahap I dan Tahap II? . Berikan tiga penekanan utama / unsur-unsur Kurikulum Sains Rendah. Bincangkan cabaran-cabaran dalam menggabungkan penekanan ini ke dalam pelajaran. 6. Senaraikan kemahiran dan nilai-nilai kurikulum yang diharap untuk dibangunkan. Mengapa kemahiran dan nilai-nilai tersebut penting? 7Dengan menggunakan pengurusan grafik yang sesuai, tunjukkan bagaimana kandungan kurikulum sains yang anda pilih dapat dibina. 8. Kurikulum Sains Sekolah dibina berdasarkan tema-tema tertentu. Tuliskan tema-tema tersebut untuk Tahap I dan Tahap II 9. Setiap Tema dalam kandungan kurikulum terdiri daripada pelbagai Bidang Pembelajaran.Bina Jadual Bidang Pembelajaran mengikut tema-tema yang sesuai bagi Tahun 1 hingga 6. Apakah yang dapat anda simpulkan tentang susunan bidang-bidang pembelajaran tersebut? Tema| Tahun 1| Tahun 2| Tahun 3| Tahun 4| Tahun 5| Tahun 6| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 10. Dalam Spesifikasi Kurikulum, organisasi kandungan ditunjukkan dengan menggunakan 5 lajur. Nama dan terangkan setiap tajuk lajur tersebut. 11. Kurikulum Sains Rendah mengintegrasikan pengetahuan, kemahiran dan nilai-nilai dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran sains.Dengan memberikan contoh-contoh yang sesuai tunjukkan bagaimana seorang guru dapat mengintegrasikan ketiga-tiga elemen tersebut dala m pelajaran sains. 12. Cadangkan strategi pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang sesuai untuk kurikulum sains sekolah rendah. Berikan penerangan ringkas tentang setiap strategi tersebut. 13. Apakah tiga aspek yang dinilai dalam kurikulum sains sekolah rendah dan bagaimanakah aspek tersebut dinilai? | Bahan Bacaan dan Internet | Banding bezakan Kurikulum Sains Sekolah Rendah di Malaysia dan New Zealand dari segi objektif, penekanan dan skop. (New Zealand Primary Science Curriculum: ttp://www. tki. org. nz/r/science/curriculum/toc_e. php ) Rujukan Pusat Pembangunan Kurikulum (2002). Huraian Sukatan Pelajaran Sains. Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia Ministry of Education, Wellington, New Zealand (2002). Science in the New Zealand Curriculum. Retrieved on 10 Sept. 2009 from: http://www. tki. org. nz/r/science/curriculum/toc_e. php | Tamat Topik 3| TAJUK 4| Kurikulum Sains Pendidikan Rendah Malaysia II | SINOPSIS Topik ini membincangkan amalan-amalan yang baik dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran sa ins. Ia merangkumi pelbagai strategi, aktiviti-aktiviti pembelajaran dan prosedur pentaksiran.HASIL PEMBELAJARAN 1. Mengenalpasti masalah-masalah dalam pembelajaran sains 2. Menghuraikan pelbagai strategi, aktiviti dan pentaksiran yang boleh di implementasi dalam pembelajaran sains.. KERANGKA TAJUK Rajah 4. 0 Kerangka Tajuk ISI KANDUNGAN 4. 1Strategi Pengajaran dan pembelajaran Strategi pengajaran dan pembelajaran dalam kurikulum sains menekankan kepada pembelajaran berfikrah. Pembelajaran berfikrah adalah suatu proses yang boleh membantu murid-murid menguasai ilmu pengetahuan dan kemahiran yang akan membantu mereka untuk membangun pemikiran ketahap optimum.Pembelajaran sains berfikrar boleh dicapai melalui pendekatan yang pelbagai seperti inkuiri, konstruktivisme, pembelajaran kontektual dan pembelajaran masteri. Oleh yang demikian aktiviti pembelajaran perlu dirancangkan kepada merangsang pemikiran kraeatif dan kritis murid-murid dan tidak hanya tertumpu kepada pembelajaran secara rutin atau kebiasaan. Murid-murid harus menyedari tentang kemahiran berfikir dan strategi berfikir yang mereka gunakan dalam pembelajaran . Mereka harus di cabar dengan masalah dan soalan-soalan aras tinggi untuk menyelesaikan masalah yang memerlukan kepada penyelesaian masalah.Proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran seharusnya dapat membolehkan murid-murid menguasai ilmu pengetahuan, kemahiran dan memperkembangkan sikap saintifik dan nilai murni secara bersepadu 4. 2Aktiviti Pembelajaran Kepelbagaian kaedah pengajaran dan pembelajaran mampu meningkatkan minat murid-murid dalam pembelajaran sains. Kelas sains yang tidak menarik akan menjejaskan motivasi murid untuk belajar sains dan ini akan mempengaruhi pencapaian mereka. Pemilihan kaedah pengajaran perlu memenuhi kehendak kurikulum, kebolehan murid, kecerdasan pelbagai murid, dan kemudahan sumber pengajaran dan pembelajaran dan infrastruktur.Aktiviti-aktiviti yang pelbagai harus dirancang untuk murid-murid yang mempunyai gaya pembelaj aran dan kecerdasan yang berbeza-beza. Berikut adalah penjelasan ringkas tentang kaedah pengajaran dan pembelajaran. 4. 2. 1Eksperimen Eksperimen adalah kaedah yang biasa digunakan dalam kelas sains. Semasa melaksanakan eksperimen murid-murid menguji hipotesis melalui penyiasatan untuk menemukan konsep dan prinsip sains. Semasa menjalankan eksperimen, murid-murid menggunakan kemahiran berfikir, kemahiran saintifik dan kemahiran manipulatif.Aktiviti eksperimen boleh dilaksanakan secara bimbingan guru,atau guru memberi peluang jika bersesuaian kepada murid-murid untuk merekabentuk eksperimen mereka sendiri. Ini melibatkan murid-murid merancang eksperimen, bagaimana membuat pengukuran dan menganalisis data dan pembentangan hasil eksperimen mereka. 4. 2. 2Perbincangan Perbincangan adalah suatu aktiviti dimana murid-murid bertukar-tukar soalan dan pandangan berdasarkan alasan yang jelas. Perbincangan boleh dijalankan sebelum, semasa atau selepas sesuatu aktiviti.Guru memainkan peranan se bagai fasilitator dan memimpin perbincangan untuk merangsang pemikiran dan menggalakkan murid-murid supaya menyatakan pendapat atau pandangan mereka. 4. 2. 3Simulasi Dalam simulasi, aktiviti yang dijalankan menyerupai situasi atau keadaan sebenar. Contoh aktiviti-aktiviti simulasi adalah main peranan , permainan dan penggunaan model. Di dalam aktiviti main peranan murid-murid memainkan peranan yang tertentu berdasarkan syarat-syarat yang diberikan. Permainan memerlukan prosedur yang harus diikuti.Semasa akativiti permainan murid-murid belajar prinsip-prinsip yang spesifik atau memahami proses untuk membuat sesuatu keputusan. Model digunakan untuk mewakili objek-objek atau situasi sebenar supaya murid-murid dapat membuat gambaran mental dan memahami konsep dan prinsip sains yang hendak dipelajari. 4. 2. 4Projek Projek adalah suatu aktiviti pembelajaran yang dilakukan oleh individu atau kumpulan untuk mencapai objektif pembelajaran yang khusus. Projek memerlukan beberapa sesi pengajar an untuk diselesaikan . Hasil projek boleh berbentuk laporan, artifak,atau dalam bentuk persembahan yang akan dibentangkan oleh murid-murid atau guru.Kerja projek menggalakkan perkembangan kemahiran menyelesaikan masalah, pengurusan masa dan pembelajaran individu secara bebas . 4. 2. 5Lawatan dan penggunaan sumber luaran Pembelajaran sains tidak hanya terhad kepada aktiviti-aktiviti yang dijalankan dalam kawasan sekolah sahaja. Pembelajaran sains boleh dikembangkan lagi melalui penggunaan sumber luaran saperti zoo,muzium,pusat-pusat sains,institusi-institusi penyelidikan kawasan paya bakau dan kilang-kilang. Lawatan ke tempat-tempat berikut akan menjadikan pembelajaran sains itu lebih menarik. bermakna dan berkesan. Untuk mengoptimumkan pembelajaran lawatan perlu dirancang dengan teliti.Murid-murid perlu dilibatkan dalam membuat perancangan dan tugasan yang spesifik perlu ditetapkan sebelum lawatan. Lawatan pembelajaran ini tidak akan lengkap tanpa pos-perbincangan selepas lawatan. 4. 2. 6Penggunaan Teknologi Tekno