My Wrist Watch Essay

My watch means a lot to me, and is one of my most cherished possessions which I’ve ever had. It came about on a beautiful day I decided to escort â€Å"shade† my girlfriend to the Mall for some window shopping. That same day was my birthday. I had never celebrated my birthday, and I still didn’t see any reason to do so that day. We checked as many things as we could in most stores, although we had no money to purchase one single thing. We walked into this particular jewelry store which Shade had always talked about in the past. I really had no love for jewelries, so for me, going or not going to that jewelry store, really made no difference at all. Along the line, we ended up at this jewelry store Shade had been talking about. Inside the jewelry store I felt so bored, and gazed into the thin air, like I really had something I took serious notice of; but in reality I was looking through the jewelry and its shelves. At this point I really felt like a soggy cow, forced to the river. Just about ten minutes in this store, my eyes caught sight of this object on the jewelry shelf. About five feet away, it looked so attractive and seemed as pretty as a Mona Lisa painting. Something really made this object outstanding compared to other objects on the shelf. Moving closer, and about a foot away from the jewelry shelf, I could conclude that this glittering object was a watch. From where I stood I could conclude that this watch was manufactured from solid yellow gold bars of about eighteen karat gold and stainless steel. it had about a 40mm case and about a 20mm bracelet. It had this unique feature of having an independent setting for the hour hand, and further featured the date function at the 3 o’clock hour of the face. It also had a crown laid at the 12 o’clock hour, which at that juncture, made me connect with the reality that I was standing in the presence of a brand of an almighty Rolex watch.  Within a split second, one of the sales ladies walked up to me and offered me assistance, but what could she offer me, except for name and the price of the watch, which I immediately asked her for. She let me know the name of the watch was a Rolex Thunderbird, and it would cost me about $800 to purchase it. At that point $800 registered in my brain as two times my monthly rent. All the same the watch still looked to me like it worth more than that amount. Standing close to the door was Shade; she looked like she had been standing there for close to twenty five minutes. I immediately met up with her, and I thought I heard her say she was surprised and thought that I never loved watches. I know I never really loved watches, but there was really something different and special about this watch that could not add up. Shade dropped me of at my apartment and hurriedly left, which was unlike shade that would always like to spend some time with me before leaving. Well for me, that was not a problem, because at the moment, the only immediate problem I had was where on earth I could get $800 to purchase the Rolex watch I saw back there at the jewelry store. As much as I could remember, I never expected Shade to came back to my apartment that night, as I was about to go to bed. But as she came back, this time she came with a birthday gift. Since I knew shade, she had never given me a birthday gift, nor had she ever remembered my birthday. Well on unwrapping the gift, and then opening the black box, there laid a Rolex Thunderbird wrist watch, which was exactly the same wrist watch, I saw at the store much earlier in the day. Nobody had given me a birthday gift in the past 20 years. This was the greatest gift of my life, and which till this day, remains an important piece of my life.

History Teaches Us Only One Thing Essay

â€Å"History teaches us only one thing: knowing about the past cannot help people to make important decisions today. † History is the past considered as a whole, the series of events which are connected with someone. It is the past which had taken place like the world wars, about the freedom fighters, the evidence which have remained when these incidents took place. Knowing about the past can just help people to gain information and to be aware of what took place in the past and this does not help in taking important decisions today as this only helps people to be aware of the things which took place. The decisions taken at that time and the decisions taken in this modern society are totally different. It is said that â€Å"Past is no predictor of future† , the decisions taken at that time will not help for the decisions taken in the current events because that depends upon the people as to what circumstances they are facing and they can just get aware if at all this has taken place in the past and not the history. The people who took decisions at that particular point of time are totally different than what a person takes at this point of time. Firstly, history does not contain the circumstances that a person wants to take decisions today especially with the circumstances which a person faces at this time and the point taken at that past which is already history. The modern world or society does not depend upon history for decisions. For example, a person taking decisions in business deals cannot be dependent upon the history because a person needs to see all the consequences and the future prospects of his or her business and not on the history, a person can get aware of the things which took place in the past and can take care that the mistakes done in the past should not repeat the wrong decisions taken in the past. It does not depend solely upon the history. The decisions taken by the person will vary from person to person whether a person is choosing a career or decisions are made for business, or it is family decisions. The decisions taken today will vary and the important decisions taken in history does not make any sense in depending on those decisions because it does not help the people in taking right decisions because the circumstances the people faced and the circumstances faced in the modern world are two different things. History is the past and one should not look back for the future decisions taking place in the current situations. One should be aware and should be careful for the decisions, one should look into the consequences of taking the risk for the decisions a person is taking whether it is a family matter, or it is in a business, or choosing a career for a student. Thus, history does not help a person to take decisions of the modern society, past should be remained as a past and should not be considered for future prospects. The decisions taken in history and the decisions taken at this point of time are two different things and one cannot compare these two different things for the important decisions made today.

Over-education in the Graduate Labour Market Essay

Over-education in the Graduate Labour Market - Essay Example As the essay declares over-education refers to a situation whereby a person holds a job for which they are overqualified. Thus, when used in the context of the graduate labour market, the term implies that degree holders are employed in jobs whose skills requirements are much lower than the skills they have acquired at college or university. Put in another way, the graduate is underemployed. For instance, a holder of a degree in electrical engineering who works as a salesperson of cars can be described as being underemployed. A person does not require a degree in engineering to sell cars. The skills of such a person would be better utilized if they were employed in a company that manufactures electrical appliances.This paper highlights that scholars have advanced many reasons to explain why the citizens of a country may become over-educated. The two most cited reasons are skewed government policies and high levels of unemployment. In its efforts to enhance access to higher education, the government may open the doors of higher education so wide that everyone goes through. A common way by which governments around the world accomplish their goal of making higher education more accessible is by transforming middle-level colleges and technical training institutes into universities. Unfortunately, the same governments do not step up efforts to create employment opportunities to match the rising number of graduates. The result is often a flooded job market where, in desperation, the graduates snap any job that comes their way.

Report on the BOOTS and ALLIANCE in talks over 7.5bn merger Essay

Report on the BOOTS and ALLIANCE in talks over 7.5bn merger - Essay Example The other company, which is inching towards the deal, is Alliance UniChem, which has an estimated market worth of nearly 3.2bn. The company conducts extensive wholesale operations all over the UK, Netherlands, Norway & Italy in the field of Drug Trade with the presence of nearly upto 1200 pharmacies throughout these countries. Over the last one year, the de-regulation of the market in the Pharmaceutical Sector has resulted in a stiffer competition in the high street market among retailing companies. Companies and Supermarkets now have the liberty to set up in-store pharmacies, which poses a danger to key pharmaceutical players like BOOTS and Alliance. In an analysis published in biotech-info.net- "Due to the softening of rules and the law, BOOTS is facing stiff competition from other pharmaceutical retailing majors such as TESCO, which enjoyed and continues to enjoy a place of dominance and monopoly in the market". Tougher competition from the supermarkets has forced Mr. Baker of BOOTS to cut the price of his products in an attempt to prop up the so far lukewarm sales, although this has put some further pressure on the profit and operating margins. As such, both the firms have decided that it is time to join hands in order to compete effectively in the market and also to improve upon their current individual deficiencies. The present deal is expected to give the new firm an industry share of nearly upto 20%. But the present deal has been met with a lot of speculation especially from the institutional shareholders who generally regard such nil-premium mergers with skepticism. The companies therefore intend to seek support for the deal by outlining the capacity of the new merged outfit's capacity to generate significant cost and purchasing synergies and boost

Precautions to be taken in drafting Oil & Gas Industry Contracts Essay

Precautions to be taken in drafting Oil & Gas Industry Contracts - Essay Example This essay discusses that Oil & Gas industry is a unique industry as it involves a high risk aspect of exploitation and exploration, high capital –intensive character of the industry, geographic ambit of operations and assets, environmental issues, up-date technology needs, safeguard issues, downstream brand advertising, size and range of employee base, political predispositions,etc. Oil & Gas industry engrosses the granting many contracts like project feasibility study, construction, supplies, civil and offshore contracts, mainly through subcontracts. If the turnkey contract is implemented, then the contract has the responsibility of defining in a strict, complete and definite manner the works to be covered and risk to be borne in the contract itself. In the oil and gas sector, the definitive goal of any operator is to exploit maximum revenues by efficient and rapid discovery of petroleum and gas resources with no or minimal disruption. Contractual process in Oil and Gas (O&G ) industry is a lengthy and time-consuming process , fixing the accountability and granting damages to the affected parties is normally considered to be a hectic task given the nature of the industry which is symbolised by subcontracting. To achieve their business goal, operators in O&G industry is well aware that risks in the industry can be administered and controlled when the same has been unequivocally distributed to one or more parties. It is to be noted that risks can be covered by taking appropriate insurance policies, but this involves an additional financial burden to the operators. The easy way to shift the risk in O&G industry is to employ contractors to alter common law approach as a risk management process. (4). LOGIC of UK has published a standard contract (boilerplate contract) through its 2nd Edition, October 2004 for the oil & gas industry in UK. This is a standard contract, and the contract employs English law .However, now, all references to UK needs’ have been withdrawn, and it can be employed on a global basis. For drafting contracts for oil and gas industry , the lawyers will use boilerplate contract like the one designed by Logic .It connotes to any interchangeable ,† one size fits all† provision. While drafting the contract, more significance has to be given to the areas like the notice clauses, the choice of law clauses, the force majeure clauses, the delegation and the assignment provision. These clauses are significant as it will give a road map, informing the parties concerned their relationships and how to administer the contract. (2) Some of the main advantages of the boilerplate contracts are that it contains many clauses either override or restates the common law provisions and is being in use by the relevant companies for long time. It is having drafting efficiency and to costs fewer pounds and takes less time to input the standard clauses into the contract. By incorporating the conditions available in the bo ilerplate contracts will help to avoid errors. Further, a standard clause is well known to business and legal community, thereby minimising the costs of reassessing and negotiating the provisions, as well as fostering a analogues interpretation. (2) Some critics allege that the poorly outlined boilerplate clauses may result in issues instead of finding a solution while execution of a contract. A poorly drafted contract will no doubt will result in the litigation which is not only time-consuming and also expensive. Thus, there is a need to give more careful attention to each and every boilerplate clauses, including how it is going to be interpreted in the case of future litigation. (2) For the risk allocation, common law provision is followed in O&G contracts and, where there is no specific contract and the general law pertaining to tort, contract/delict will be applicable. With the operative word being ‘negligence†, the liability stems from the fault or infringement of d uty in such cases.

Stooge Concept Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Stooge Concept - Essay Example n of heaping torture upon one individual, it is a necessity for the mental well being of the many, in order that the utopian condition of the city might be preserved. In a similar manner, Jackson’s â€Å"The Lottery† is based upon the same theme of one individual becoming a scapegoat to bear the brunt of frustration and anger that others feel – the sacrifice of the one to preserve the happiness of the many. Crane’s â€Å"The Blue Hotel† also reiterates this theme of selection of a scapegoat elected to suffer in order that the happiness of others and their utopian existing state can be maintained. LeGuin’s story progresses through there phases – the first shows suggests an idyllic existence, fortunate that the citizens of Omelas enjoy. But the dark undertones to the story are revealed in the second half of the story where the existence of the one child locked in filthy, miserable conditions within a broom closet is revealed to the reader – it has become imbecile through fear, malnutrition and neglect.† (LeGuin 281). The existence of the child is known to the citizens of the town – it sometimes begs for release and promises to be good, because it is suffering so much from being naked, covered with sores and left to sit in its own excrement. Most of the citizens view the child and are shocked at its pitiable state, however although they would like to do something to help the child, they cannot because â€Å"to throw away the happiness of thousands for the chance for the happiness of one: that would be to let guilt within the walls indeed.† (LeGuin 282). Therefore, many of them try to rationalize the suffering to themselves by arguing that after so long, the child would not even appreciate freedom – â€Å"it would probably be wretched without walls about it to protect it, and dakness for its eyes and its own excrement to sit in.† (LeGuin 283). The third part of the story deals with the reaction to this revelation, and how some people walk away from the

Green Supply Chain Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Green Supply Chain - Essay Example Monsoon Company uses strategies that are environmental friendly in manufacturing their chemicals. They do not dump waste materials but they recycle their waste products to avoid pollution. They have an accounting program that monitors activities that may led to degradation of the environment. Amazon Company is also environment sensitive since they replace trees that they have used in manufacturing their books. This is by planting more trees than they have cut for manufacturing of paper. Sustainability Stagecoach Company controls the effect that carbon dioxide may cause to the environment by replacing old vehicles. The company improves the efficiency of their vehicles thus offering their customers excellent services and as well reducing impacts on the environment (Basu & Wright, 2007). They have implemented new technology in their vehicles that do not guzzle appreciable quantities fuel and thus reducing carbon dioxide emission. These vehicles have achieved a high emission standard in Europe. The company has set targets on carbon emission strategies as the centre of their green program. This is possible, as they have introduced an accounting and control system of carbon emissions. This program is integrated with their business agenda to ensure transparency to their customers and ensure they have managed carbon emissions by their vehicles. The company has used alternative technologies that are environmental friendly, which reduce carbon dioxide emissions. They have more than 1000 vehicles with alternative drive train, which are modified to ensure efficiency to their customers (Basu & Wright, 2007). The modifications include aerodynamics technology that has proven to be efficient and electronic adaptations that reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Drivers are made aware of the importance of environment conservation. Drivers are trained on better driving techniques where they drive efficiently, thus saving fuel. There are many campaigns on awareness of efficient driving that will assist in saving fuel. They should use vehicles that do not depend on fuel for energy because of its rising cost and fines they pay from carbon emissions Monsoon Company has to come up with other alternatives for dealing with raising fuel cost and regulations that govern carbon dioxide emissions. This will interfere with most of their supply chain strategies for delivering services to customers. These companies pay a huge amount of taxes that interfere with their outcomes and profits. It is therefore, the role of these companies to come up with alternative technology that will be used in manufacturing their chemicals. This technology should be environmental sensitive by reducing the rate of carbon emissions (Emmete, & Sood, 2010). The company should use raw materials are not toxic and might have impact on the environment. This helps in reductions of carbon dioxide emissions, thus conserving the environment. It is the role of the company to connect their businesses with gr een supply for the purpose of transparency. Customer’s needs are fulfilled by companies that connect their business to green supply resulting to high output of the company. Connecting green supply goals with business goals Companies like Amazon must align their businesses with green supply chains to realize their objectives. Amazon should ensure that green supply chain is connected

Is African-American assimilation into American culture the main theme Assignment

Is African-American assimilation into American culture the main theme of these black codes - Assignment Example Section seven restricts removal of blacks from American slowing assimilation pegged at judge satisfaction. The punitive codes discouraged assimilations of the blacks. Despite earlier abolition of slavery, it was never implemented as provided for in constitution, 1802. Assimilation of Blacks entailed restrictive payment of $500 and other payment to the clerk to obtain court papers guaranteeing blacks’ freedom (Shadd 76). The restrictive bond escalated by alarmed Negroes influx who were later subjected to similar punitive codes hence forced to vacate within 30 days. Attempts to delay such order were futile hence blacks had to leave for Canada where people were not segregated on the basis of race and colors. The punitive codes were meant to push out non-America away from Ohio and not to assimilate them as pretentiously enacted. Proponent of punitive codes would later regret by losing productive blacks to

Latinos Illegal Immigration Essay Example for Free

Latinos Illegal Immigration Essay â€Å"The contribution of immigrants can be seen in every aspect of our national life. We see it in religion, in politics, in business, in arts, in education, even in athletics and in entertainment. There is no part of our nation that has not been touch by our immigrant’s background† As we all know, John F. Kennedy was passionate about emigrational issues, throughout his presidency. He always said that America is a nation of people with values and traditions. He believes everybody deserves the freedom to build better lives for themselves as well as for their family members in their adopted homeland. Throughout the years, numerous folks have immigrated from all around the world to the United States. Today, Latinos are the largest minority group in the United States. â€Å"About 44 million Latinos have been officially tallied; another 9 million Latinos are living here illegally. † The Latinos substantial Illegal immigration into the United State has provoked a mayor concern. There are many concerns about Latinos illegal immigration such as, the impact on the United States economy, as well as for their motherland, also the physical danger they have to experience on their journey, and the psychological sufferings they have to live with in order to live the American dream. To begin with, going back to the 1800’s, before the Europeans immigrated into the United States, Latinos had already established settlements in New Mexico and Florida, And have contribute to the development of this country. According to the statistical abstract of the United States about 43 million people can trace back to their Hispanic origin. Even after all of the history of Latinos in America, U. S. officials begun to build a 670 miles-long-wall on the U. S. borders to control the illegal immigration. Despising protest from environmental groups and the Mexican government, the U. S. government continues work on keeping Latino illegal immigrant away from the U. S borders, but then again about 300,000 people elude detention and make it to the United States each year, and about million get arrested and return to their native land. Despite walls and border patrol official as long as there is poverty in third world countries, undocumented immigrant will continue to find a way to fight for the American dream. Then again â€Å"what is the American dream? † The American dream is to come to the United States and work hard. Their goal is not to get rich and make millions of dollar but instead all they want to do is to provide their families a better life style. Many travel the journey alone, because they know how dangerous and risky this experience can be. Some people try over and over if they were not successful the first time. Once they finally make it across; they live in the worst conditions and share their living space with 8 other people just to be able to save as much as they can so one day they can return to their motherland, and enjoy the fruit of their hard work with their loved ones. One of the biggest controversies about illegal immigration for many Americans is that if more illegal immigrant crossed the border, the jobs availability will decrease. That is understandable. Many Latinos that work in the United States work hard and have more than one job at the same time. The irony of all is that the jobs these illegal immigrants do are those ones no one wants to put their hands on, because either those jobs are difficult to do or because the pay is not enough. I do not think any of the protestants groups against Latinos illegal immigration have ever think that these people had never had the chance to go to school and educate themselves. Every American in this country had the privileged to get education. But instead there are many that chose not to take advantage of that. They rather live of welfare and social security. I do not know who is worst, us hypocrites citizens that are always trying to eat the smallest fish or these companionate people that all they care about is the wellbeing of the people they love. This type of egoism and greed is what has brought biggest empires down. Furthermore, another concern is that millions of dollars being send throughout Latino America without being tax. This concern affect us all, since must of the money from taxes is use to run public schools, hospitals, public transportation, etc. n my opinion, I agree with this concern, but in the other hand I am sure that if they were given a chance to contribute to the growth of this country; they will take care of their responsibilities. In addition to the effect of immigrants in the United states economy. I would like to talk about the physical and emotional impact of have to go through after they make the decision of fulfilling their American dreams. While doing this research I stumble upon a short article by James M. Henslin call â€Å"The Illegal Travel Guide† this article explains the experience from a different point of view. Manuel was a drinking buddy of Jose, a man I had met in Colima, Mexico. At 45, Manuel was friendly, outgoing, and enterprising. Manuel, who had lived in the United States for seven years, spoke fluent English. Preferring to live in his hometown in Colima, where he palled around with his childhood friends, Manuel always seemed to have money and free time. When Manuel invited me to go on a business trip with him, I accepted. I never could figure out what he did for a living or how he could afford a car, a luxury that none of his friends had. As we traveled from one remote village to another, Manuel would sell used clothing that he had heaped in the back of his older-model Ford station wagon. ? At one stop, Manuel took me into a dirt-floored, thatched-roof hut. While chickens ran in and out, Manuel whispered to a slender man who was about 23 years old. The poverty was overwhelming. Juan, as his name turned out to be, had a partial grade school education. He also had a wife, four hungry children under the age of 5, and two pigs his main food supply. Although eager to work, Juan had no job, for there was simply no work available in this remote village. As we were drinking a Coke, which seems to be the national beverage of Mexicos poor, Manuel ex ­plained to me that he was not only selling clothing he was also lining up migrants to the United States. For a fee, he would take a man to the border and in ­troduce him to a wolf, who would help him cross into the promised land. When I saw the hope in Juans face, I knew nothing would stop him. He was borrowing every cent he could from every friend and relative to scrape the money together. Although he risked losing everything if apprehended and he would be facing unknown risks, Juan would make the trip, for wealth beckoned on the other side. He knew people who had been to the United States and spoke glowingly of its opportunities. Manuel, of course, the salesman he was, stoked the fires of hope. Looking up from the children playing on the dirt floor with chickens pecking about them, I saw a man who loved his family. In order to make the desperate bid for a better life, he would suffer an enforced absence, as well as the uncertainties of a foreign culture whose language he did not know. Juan opened his billfold, took something out, and slowly handed it to me. I looked at it curiously. I felt tears as I saw the tenderness with which he handled this piece of paper. It was his passport to the land of opportunity: A social security card made with his name, sent by a friend who had already made the trip and who was waiting for Juan on the other side of the border. It was then that I realized that the thousands of Manuels scurrying about Mexico and the millions of Juans they are transporting can never be stopped, for only the United States can fulfill their dreams of a better life. Henslin, The Illegal Travel Guide) ? In conclusion, I believe that the illegal immigration to the United States makes a big impact on our country’s economy and Latino America’s. Nevertheless, I cannot even imaging how hard is for this people to make a life changing decision without any warranty. Crossing the borders is not easy. Many people have lost their live trying; many others are still traumatized about their journey, some have vanished in desert; their family members never heard from ever again. The psychological impact for these individuals is almost insufferable. Even knowing what the consequences might be, they leave everything behind and spend every penny they have to travel to the United States, just to offer their families a better life style. They believe this is the country of freedom, progress and opportunity, just what our founding fathers stood for. A society of immigrants, each of whom had begun life anew, on an equal footing. This is the secret of America: a nation of people with the fresh memory of old traditions who dare to explore new frontiers. â€Å"(Kennedy)

Act Utilitarianism Essay Example for Free

Act Utilitarianism Essay Utilitarianism is a theory in normative ethics holding that the proper course of action is the one that maximizes overall happiness. It is now generally taken to be a form of consequentialism, although when Anscombe first introduced that term it was to distinguish between old-fashioned Utilitarianism and consequentialism. [1] According to utilitarianism the moral worth of an action is determined only by its resulting outcome although there is debate over how much consideration should be given to actual consequences, foreseen consequences and intended consequences. Two influential contributors to this theory are Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. In A Fragment on Government Bentham says ‘it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong’ and describes this as a fundamental axiom. In An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation he talks of ‘the principle of utility’ but later prefers â€Å"the greatest happiness principle. [2][3] Utilitarianism can be characterized as a quantitative and reductionist approach to ethics. It is a type of naturalism. [4] It can be contrasted with deontological ethics,[5] which does not regard the consequences of an act as a determinant of its moral worth; virtue ethics,[6] which primarily focuses on acts and habits leading to happiness; pragmatic ethics; as well as with ethical egoism and other varieties of consequentialism. [7] Utilitarianism has often been considered the natural ethic of a democracy operating by simple majority without protection of individual rights. [8] Early utilitarianism The importance of happiness as an end for humans has long been recognized. Forms of hedonism were put forward by Aristippus and Epicurus; Aristotle argued that eudaimonia is the highest human good and Augustine wrote that all men agree in desiring the last end, which is happiness. Happiness was also explored in depth by Aquinas[9][10][11][12][13] However, utilitarianism as a distinct ethical position only emerged in the eighteenth century. Although utilitarianism is usually thought to start with Jeremy Bentham there were earlier writers who presented theories that were strikingly similar. In An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals David Hume writes: In all determinations of morality, this circumstance of public utility is ever principally in view; and wherever disputes arise, either in philosophy or common life, concerning the bounds of duty, the question cannot, by any means, be decided with greater certainty, than by ascertaining, on any side, the true interests of mankind. [14] Hume had studied under Francis Hutcheson and it was he who first introduced a key utilitarian phrase. In An Inquiry into the Original of Our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue (1725) Hutcheson writes, In comparing the moral qualitys of actions, in order to regulate our election among various actions proposed, or to find which of them has the greatest moral excellency, we are led by our moral sense of virtue to judge thus; that in equal degrees of happiness, expected to proceed from the action, the virtue is in proportion to the number of persons to whom the happiness shall extend (and here the dignity, or moral importance of persons, may compensate numbers); And in equal numbers, the virtue is as the quantity of the happiness, or natural good; or that the virtue is in a compound ratio of the quantity of good, and number of enjoyers. In the same manner, the moral evil, or vice, is as the degree of misery, and number of sufferers; so that, that action is best, which procures the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers; and that, worst, which, in like manner, occasions misery. [15]. In the first three editions of the book Hutcheson followed this passage with various mathematical algorithms â€Å"to compute the Morality of any Actions†. In this he pre-figured the hedonic calculus of Bentham. It is claimed[16] that the first systematic theory of utilitarian ethics was developed by John Gay. In Concerning the Fundamental Principle of Virtue or Morality (1731) Gay argues that. Utilitarianism â€Å"happiness, private happiness, is the proper or ultimate end of all our actions†¦ each particular action may be said to have its proper and peculiar end†¦(but)†¦. they still tend or ought to tend to something farther; as is evident from hence, viz. that a man may ask and expect a reason why either of them are pursued: now to ask the reason of any action or pursuit, is only to enquire into the end of it: but to expect a reason, i. e. an end, to be assigned for an ultimate end, is absurd. To ask why I pursue happiness, will admit of no other answer than an explanation of the terms. †[17] This pursuit of happiness is given a theological basis: â€Å"Now it is evident from the nature of God, viz.his being infinitely happy in himself from all eternity, and from his goodness manifested in his works, that he could have no other design in creating mankind than their happiness; and therefore he wills their happiness; therefore the means of their happiness: therefore that my behaviour, as far as it may be a means of the happiness of mankind, should be such†¦thus the will of God is the immediate criterion of Virtue, and the happiness of mankind the criterion of the wilt of God; and therefore the happiness of mankind may be said to be the criterion of virtue, but once removed†¦(and)†¦ I am to do whatever lies in my power towards promoting the happiness of mankind. [18] Gay’s theological utilitarianism was developed and popularized by William Paley. It has been claimed that Paley was not a very original thinker and that the philosophical part of his treatise on ethics is â€Å"an assemblage of ideas developed by others and is presented to be learned by students rather than debated by colleagues. †[19] Nevertheless, his book The Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy (1785) was a required text at Cambridge[19] and Smith says that Paley’s writings were â€Å"once as well known in American colleges as were the readers and spellers of William McGuffey and Noah Webster in the elementary schools. †[20] Although now largely missing from the philosophical canon, Schneewind writes that utilitarianism first became widely known in England through the work of William Paley. [21] The now forgotten significance of Paley can be judged from the title of Birks 1874 work Modern Utilitarianism or the Systems of Paley, Bentham and Mill Examined and Compared. Apart from restating that happiness as an end is grounded in the nature of God, Paley also discusses the place of rules. He writes, â€Å"†¦actions are to be estimated by their tendency. Whatever is expedient, is right. It is the utility of any moral rule alone, which constitutes the obligation of it. Modern Utilitarianism by T. R. Birks 1874 2 But to all this there seems a plain objection, viz. that many actions are useful, which no man in his senses will allow to be right. There are occasions, in which the hand of the assassin would be very useful†¦ The true answer is this; that these actions, after all, are not useful, and for that reason, and that alone, are not right. To see this point perfectly, it must be observed that the bad consequences of actions are twofold, particular and general. The particular bad consequence of an action, is the mischief which that single action directly and immediately occasions. The general bad consequence is, the violation of some necessary or useful general rule†¦ You cannot permit one action and forbid another, without showing a difference between them. Consequently, the same sort of actions must be generally permitted or generally forbidden. Where, Utilitarianism therefore, the general permission of them would be pernicious, it becomes necessary to lay down and support the rule which generally forbids them. †[22] 3 Classical utilitarianism Jeremy Bentham Benthams book An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation was printed in 1780 but not published until 1789. It is possible that Bentham was spurred on to publish after he saw the success of Paley’s The Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy. [23] Benthams book was not an immediate success[24] but his ideas were spread further when Pierre Etienne Louis Dumont translated edited selections from a variety of Benthams manuscripts into French. Traite de legislation civile et penale was published in 1802 and then later retranslated back into English by Hildreth as The Theory of Legislation, although by this time significant portions of Dumont’s work had already been retranslated and incorporated into Sir John Bowrings edition of Benthams works, which was issued in parts between 1838 and 1843. Benthams work opens with a statement of the principle of utility, â€Å"Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do†¦ By the principle of utility is meant that principle which approves or disapproves of every action whatsoever according to the tendency it appears to have to augment or diminish the happiness of the party whose interest is in question: or, what is the same thing in other words to promote or to oppose that happiness. I say of every action whatsoever, and therefore not only of every action of a private individual, but of every measure of government. †[25] In Chapter IV Bentham introduces a method of calculating the value of pleasures and pains, which has come to be known as the hedonic calculus. Bentham says that the value of a pleasure or pain, considered by itself, can be measured according to its intensity, duration, certainty/uncertainty and propinquity/remoteness. In addition, it is necessary to consider â€Å"the tendency of any act by which it is produced† and, therefore, to take account of the act’s fecundity, or the chance it has of being followed by sensations of the same kind and its purity, or the chance it has of not being followed by sensations of the opposite kind. Finally, it is necessary to consider the extent, or the number of people affected by the action. Perhaps aware that Hutcheson eventually removed his algorithms for calculating the greatest happiness because they â€Å"appear’d useless, and were disagreeable to some readers†[26] Bentham contends that there is nothing novel or unwarranted about his method for â€Å"in all this there is nothing but what the practice of mankind, wheresoever they have a clear view of their own interest, is perfectly conformable to. † Rosen warns that descriptions of utilitarianism can bear â€Å"little resemblance historically to utilitarians like Bentham and J. S. Mill† and can be more â€Å"a crude version of act utilitarianism conceived in the twentieth century as a straw man to be attacked and rejected. †[27] It is a mistake to think that Bentham is not concerned with rules. His seminal work is concerned with the principles of legislation and the hedonic calculus is introduced with the words â€Å"Pleasures then, and the avoidance of pains, are the ends that the legislator has in view. † In Chapter VII Bentham says, â€Å"The business of government is to promote the happiness of the society, by punishing and rewarding†¦ In proportion as an act tends to disturb that happiness, in proportion as the tendency of it is pernicious, will be the demand it creates for punishment. † The question then arises as to when, if at all, it might legitimate to break the law. This is considered in The Theory of Legislation where Bentham distinguishes between evils of the first and second orders. Those of the first order are the more immediate consequences; those of the second are when the consequences spread through the community causing ‘alarm’ and ‘danger’. Utilitarianism â€Å"It is true there are cases in which, if we confine ourselves to the effects of the first order, the good will have an incontestable preponderance over the evil. Were the offence considered only under this point of view, it would not be easy to assign any good reasons to justify the rigour of the laws. Every thing depends upon the evil of the second order; it is this which gives to such actions the character of crime, and which makes punishment necessary. Let us take, for example, the physical desire of satisfying hunger. Let a beggar, pressed by hunger, steal from a rich mans house a loaf, which perhaps saves him from starving, can it be possible to compare the good which the thief acquires for himself, with the evil which the rich man suffers? †¦ It is not on account of the evil of the first order that it is necessary to erect these actions into offences, but on account of the evil of the second order. †[28] 4 John Stuart Mill Mill was brought up as a Benthamite with the explicit intention that would carry on the cause of utilitarianism. [29] Mills book Utilitarianism first appeared as a series of three articles published in Frasers Magazine in 1861 and was reprinted as a single book in 1863. Higher and lower pleasures Mill rejects a purely quantitative measurement of utility and says, â€Å"It is quite compatible with the principle of utility to recognise the fact, that some kinds of pleasure are more desirable and more valuable than others. It would be absurd that while, in estimating all other things, quality is considered as well as quantity, the estimation of pleasures should be supposed to depend on quantity alone. †[30] Mill notes that, contrary to what its critics might say, there is â€Å"no known Epicurean theory of life which does not assign to the pleasures of the intellect†¦ a much higher value as pleasures than to those of mere sensation. † However, he accepts that this is usually because the intellectual pleasures are thought to have circumstantial advantages, i. e. â€Å"greater permanency, safety, uncostliness, c. † Instead, Mill will argue that some pleasures are intrinsically better than others. The accusation that hedonism is â€Å"doctrine worthy only of swine† has a long history. In Nicomachean Ethics (Book 1 Chapter 5) Aristotle says that identifying the good with pleasure is to prefer a life suitable for beasts. The theological utilitarians had the option of grounding their pursuit of happiness in the will of God; the hedonistic utilitarians needed a different defense. Mill’s approach is to argue that the pleasures of the intellect are intrinsically superior to physical pleasures. Few human creatures would consent to be changed into any of the lower animals, for a promise of the fullest allowance of a beasts pleasures; no intelligent human being would consent to be a fool, no instructed person would be an ignoramus, no person of feeling and conscience would be selfish and base, even though they should be persuaded that the fool, the dunce, or the rascal is better satisfied with his lot than they are with theirs†¦ A being of higher faculties requires more to make him happy, is capable probably of more acute suffering, and is certainly accessible to it at more points, than one of an inferior type; but in spite of these liabilities, he can never really wish to sink into what he feels to be a lower grade of existence†¦ It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied. And if the fool, or the pig, are of a different opinion, it is because they only know their own side of the question†¦ [31] Mill argues that if people who are â€Å"competently acquainted† with two pleasures show a decided preference for one even if it be accompanied by more discontent and â€Å"would not resign it for any quantity of the other† then it is legitimate to regard that pleasure as being superior in quality. Mill recognises that these ‘competent judges’ will not always agree, in which case the judgment of the majority is to be accepted as final. Mill also acknowledges that â€Å"many who are capable of the higher pleasures, occasionally, under the influence of temptation, postpone them to the Utilitarianism lower. But this is quite compatible with a full appreciation of the intrinsic superiority of the higher. † Mill says that this appeal to those who have experienced the relevant pleasures is no different to what must happen when assessing the quantity of pleasure for there is no other way of measuring â€Å"the acutest of two pains, or the intensest of two pleasurable sensations. † Mills proof of the principle of utility In Chapter Four of Utilitarianism Mill considers what proof can be given for the Principle of Utility. He says’ â€Å" The only proof capable of being given that an object is visible, is that people actually see it. The only proof that a sound is audible, is that people hear it In like manner, I apprehend, the sole evidence it is possible to produce that anything is desirable, is that people do actually desire it†¦ No reason can be given why the general happiness is desirable, except that each person, so far as he believes it to be attainable, desires his own happiness†¦ we have not only all the proof which the case admits of, but all which it is possible to require, that happiness is a good: that each persons happiness is a good to that person, and the general happiness, therefore, a good to the aggregate of all persons. †[32] It is usual[33] to say that Mill is committing a number of fallacies. He is accused of committing the naturalistic fallacy, because he is trying to deduce what people ought to do from what they do in fact do; the fallacy of equivocation, because he moves from the fact that something is desirable(1), i. e. is capable of being desired, to the claim that it is desirable(2), i. e.that it ought to be desired; and the fallacy of composition, because the fact that people desire their own happiness does not imply that the aggregate of all persons will desire the general happiness. Hall[34] and Popkin[35] defend Mill against this accusation pointing out that he begins Chapter Four by asserting that â€Å"that questions of ultimate ends do not admit of proof, in the ordinary acceptation of the term† and that this is â€Å"common to all first principles. † According to Hall and Popkin, therefore, Mill does not attempt to â€Å"establish that what people do desire is desirable but merely attempts to make the principles acceptable. †[33] The type of â€Å"proof† Mill is offering consists only of some considerations which, Mill thought, might induce an honest and reasonable man to accept utilitarianism. [33] Having claimed that people do, in fact, desire happiness Mill now has to show that it is the only thing they desire. Mill anticipates the objection that people desire other things such as virtue. He argues that whilst people might start desiring virtue as a means to happiness, eventually, it becomes part of someone’s happiness and is then desired as an end in itself. The principle of utility does not mean that any given pleasure, as music, for instance, or any given exemption from pain, as for example health, are to be looked upon as means to a collective something termed happiness, and to be desired on that account. They are desired and desirable in and for themselves; besides being means, they are a part of the end. Virtue, according to the utilitarian doctrine, is not naturally and originally part of the end, but it is capable of becoming so; and in those who love it disinterestedly it has become so, and is desired and cherished, not as a means to happiness, but as a part of their happiness. [36] 5 Utilitarianism 6 Twentieth century developments Ideal Utilitarianism The description Ideal Utilitarianism was first used by Hastings Rashdall in The Theory of Good and Evil (1907) but is more often associated with G. E. Moore. In Ethics (1912) Moore rejected a purely hedonistic utilitarianism and argued that there is a range of values that might be maximized. Moore’s strategy was to show that it is intuitively implausible that pleasure is the sole measure of what is good. He says that such an assumption, â€Å" involves our saying, for instance, that a world in which absolutely nothing except pleasure existed—no knowledge, no love, no enjoyment of beauty, no moral qualities—must yet be intrinsically better—better worth creating—provided only the total quantity of pleasure in it were the least bit greater, than one in which all these things existed as well as pleasure. † â€Å"It involves our saying that, even if the total quantity of pleasure in each was exactly equal, yet the fact that all the beings in the one possessed in addition knowledge of many different kinds and a full appreciation of all that was beautiful or worthy of love in their world, whereas none of the beings in the other possessed any of these things, would give us no reason whatever for preferring the former to the latter. †[37] Moore admits that it is impossible to prove the case either way but believed that it was intuitively obvious that even if the amount of pleasure stayed the same a world that contained such things as beauty and love would be a better world. He adds that if anybody took the contrary view then â€Å"I think it is self-evident that he would be wrong. †[37] Act and rule utilitarianism In the mid-twentieth century a number of philosophers focused on the place of rules in utilitarian thinking. [38] It was already accepted that it is necessary to use rules to help you choose the right action because the problems of calculating the consequences on each and every occasion would almost certainly result in you frequently choosing something less than the best course of action. Paley had justified the use of rules and Mill says, â€Å"It is truly a whimsical supposition that, if mankind were agreed in considering utility to be the test of morality, they would remain without any agreement as to what is useful, and would take no measures for having their notions on the subject taught to the young, and enforced by law and opinion†¦ to consider the rules of morality as improvable, is one thing; to pass over the intermediate generalisations entirely, and endeavour to test each individual action directly by the first principle, is another†¦ The proposition that happiness is the end and aim of morality, does not mean that no road ought to be laid down to that goal†¦ Nobody argues that the art of navigation is not founded on astronomy, because sailors cannot wait to calculate the Nautical Almanack. Being rational creatures, they go to sea with it ready calculated; and all rational creatures go out upon the sea of life with their minds made up on the common questions of right and wrong. †[39] However, rule utilitarianism proposes a more central role for rules that was thought to rescue the theory from some of its more devastating criticisms, particularly problems to do with justice and promise keeping. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s articles were published both for and against the new form of utilitarianism and through this debate the theory we now call rule utilitarianism was created. In an introduction to an anthology of these articles the editor was able to say, â€Å"The development of this theory was a dialectical process of formulation, criticism, reply and reformulation; the record of this process well illustrates the co-operative development of a philosophical theory. †[40] Smart[41] and McCloskey[42] initially used the terms extreme and restricted utilitarianism but eventually everyone settled on the terms act and rule utilitarianism. The essential difference is in what determines whether or not an action is the right action. Act utilitarianism maintains that an action is right if it maximises utility; rule utilitarianism maintains that an action is right if it Utilitarianism conforms to a rule that maximises utility. In 1953 Urmson published an influential article[43] arguing that Mill justified rules on utilitarian principles. From then on articles have debated this interpretation of Mill. In all probability it was not a distinction that Mill was particularly trying to make and so the evidence in his writing is inevitably mixed. In 1977 a collection of Mill’s writing was published which included a letter in which he said: â€Å"I agree with you that the right way of testing actions by their consequences, is to test them by the natural consequences of the particular action, and not by those which would follow if everyone did the same. But, for the most part, the consideration of what would happen if everyone did the same, is the only means we have of discovering the tendency of the act in the particular case. †[44] This seems to tip the balance in favour of saying that Mill is best classified as an act utilitarian. Some school level textbooks and at least one UK examination board[45] make a further distinction between strong and weak rule utilitarianism. However, it is not clear that this distinction is made in the academic literature. It has been argued that rule utilitarianism collapses into act utilitarianism, because for any given rule, in the case where breaking the rule produces more utility, the rule can be refined by the addition of a sub-rule that handles cases like the exception. [46] This process holds for all cases of exceptions, and so the ‘rules’ have as many ‘sub-rules’ as there are exceptional cases, which, in the end, makes an agent seek out whatever outcome produces the maximum utility. [47] 7 Two-level Utilitarianism In Principles (1973)[48] R. M. Hare accepts that rule utilitarianism collapses into act utilitarianism but claims that this is a result of allowing the rules to be as specific and un-general as we please. He argues that one of the main reasons for introducing rule utilitarianism was to do justice to the general rules that people need for moral education and character development and he proposes that â€Å"a difference between act-utilitarianism and rule-utilitarianism can be introduced by limiting the specificity of the rules, i. e. , by increasing their generality. †[49] This distinction between a ‘specific rule utilitarianism’ (which collapses into act utilitarianism) and ‘general rule utilitarianism’ forms the basis of Hare’s two-level utilitarianism. When we are ‘playing God or the ideal observer’ we use the specific form and we will need to do this when we are deciding what general principles to teach and follow. When we are ‘inculcating’ or in situations where the biases of our human nature are likely to prevent us doing the calculations properly, then we should use the more general rule utilitarianism. Hare argues that in practice, most of the time, we should be following the general principles: â€Å"One ought to abide by the general principles whose general inculcation is for the best; harm is more likely to come, in actual moral situations, from questioning these rules than from sticking to them, unless the situations are very extra-ordinary; the results of sophisticated felicific calculations are not likely, human nature and human ignorance being what they are, to lead to the greatest utility. †[50] In Moral Thinking (1981) Hare illustrated the two extremes. The archangel is the hypothetical person who has perfect knowledge of the situation and no personal biases or weaknesses and always uses critical moral thinking to decide the right thing to do; the ‘prole’ is the hypothetical person who is completely incapable of critical thinking and uses nothing but intuitive moral thinking and, of necessity, has to follow the general moral rules they have been taught or learned through imitation. [51] It is not that some people are archangels and others proles but rather â€Å"we all share the characteristics of both to limited and varying degrees and at different times. †[51] Hare does not specify when we should think more like an archangel and more like a prole as this will, in any case, vary from person to person. However, the critical moral thinking underpins and informs the more intuitive moral thinking. It is responsible for formulating and, if necessary, reformulating the general moral rules. We also switch to critical thinking when trying to deal with unusual situations or in cases where the intuitive moral rules give Utilitarianism conflicting advice. 8 Preference utilitarianism Preference utilitarianism was first put forward in 1977 by John Harsanyi in Morality and the theory of rational behaviour[52] but it is more commonly associated with R. M. Hare,[51] Peter Singer[53] and Richard Brandt. [54] Harsanyi claimed that his theory is indebted to Adam Smith, who equated the moral point of view with that of an impartial but sympathetic observer; to Kant who insisted on the criterion of universality and which may also be described as a criterion of reciprocity; to the classical utilitarians who made maximising social utility the basic criterion of morality; and to ‘the modern theory of rational behaviour under risk and uncertainty, usually described as Bayesian decision theory’. [55] Harsanyi rejects hedonistic utilitarianism as being dependent on an outdated psychology saying that it is far from obvious that everything we do is motivated by a desire to maximise pleasure and minimise pain. He also rejects ideal utilitarianism because â€Å"it is certainly not true as an empirical observation that people’s only purpose in life is to have ‘mental states of intrinsic worth’. †[56] According to Harsanyi, â€Å"preference utilitarianism is the only form of utilitarianism consistent with the important philosophical principle of preference autonomy. By this I mean the principle that, in deciding what is good and what is bad for a given individual, the ultimate criterion can only be his own wants and his own preferences. †[57] Harsanyi adds two caveats. People sometimes have irrational preferences. To deal with this Harsanyi distinguishes between ‘manifest’ preferences and ‘true’ preferences. The former are those â€Å"manifested by his observed behaviour, including preferences possibly based on erroneous factual beliefs, or on careless logical analysis, or on strong emotions that at the moment greatly hinder rational choice† whereas the latter are â€Å"the preferences he would have if he had all the relevant factual information, always reasoned with the greatest possible care, and were in a state of mind most conducive to rational choice. †[57] It is the latter that preference utilitarianism tries to satisfy. The second caveat is that antisocial preferences such as sadism, envy and resentment have to be excluded. Harsanyi achieves this by claiming that such preferences partially exclude those people from the moral community. â€Å"Utilitarian ethics makes all of us members of the same moral community. A person displaying ill will toward others does remain a member of this community, but not with his whole personality. That part of his personality that harbours these hostile antisocial feelings must be excluded from membership, and has no claim for a hearing when it comes to defining our concept of social utility. †[58] More varieties of utilitarianism Negative utilitarianism In The Open Society and its Enemies (1945), Karl Popper argued that the principle maximize pleasure should be replaced by minimize pain. He thought â€Å"it is not only impossible but very dangerous to attempt to maximize the pleasure or the happiness of the people, since such an attempt must lead to totalitarianism. †[59] He claimed that, â€Å"there is, from the ethical point of view, no symmetry between suffering and happiness, or between pain and pleasure†¦ In my opinion human suffering makes a direct moral appeal, namely, the appeal for help, while there is no similar call to increase the happiness of a man who is doing well anyway. A further criticism of the Utilitarian formula ‘Maximize pleasure’ is that it assumes a continuous pleasure-pain scale which allows us to treat degrees of pain as negative degrees of pleasure. But, from the moral point of view, pain cannot be outweighed by pleasure, and especially not one man’s pain by another man’s pleasure. Instead of the greatest happiness for the greatest number, one should demand, more modestly, the least amount of avoidable suffering for all †[60] Utilitarianism The actual term Negative Utilitarianism was introduced by R. N. Smart as the title to his 1958 reply to Popper[61] in which he argued that the principle would entail seeking the quickest and least painful method of killing the entirety of humanity. â€Å"Suppose that a ruler controls a weapon capable of instantly and painlessly destroying the human race. Now it is empirically certain that there would be some suffering before all those alive on any proposed destruction day were to die in the natural course of events. Consequently the use of the weapon is bound to diminish suffering, and would be the rulers duty on NU grounds. †[62] Negative utilitarianism would seem to call.

Threat Perception Of Singapore Toward Indonesia And Malaysia History Essay

Threat Perception Of Singapore Toward Indonesia And Malaysia History Essay The ability of economies of Southeast Asia particularly Singapore, Indonesia and Malaysia are reflected in the rate of economic growth increased rapidly until 1997 (when the economic crisis started to hit), has encouraged and enabled the acquisition and armaments dynamics. Then from the perspective of having a model of technology (technological imperative), the development of the local defense industry can contribute to the dynamics of weaponry in Southeast Asia. The end of the Cold War allowed the development of production, in addition to the skills themselves also because of licensing manufacturers are no longer confined to the West. Dynamics armament that occurred in the post-Cold War will be investigated relation (interactive relationships and non-interactive) with the following variables: From the international environment, fundamental changes in the regional security configuration above, when the post-Cold War perceived by Singapore, Indonesia and Malaysia as: 1. The shift in the defense structure that requires them to participate maintain and ensure their own interests by increasing the quality and quantity of weapons development; 2. The end of the cold war is perceived as a change in the security threat of global conflict threat to local security threat salience of intra and extra-regional conflicts; 3. Necessity countries in Southeast Asia to arm yourself with the increasing military projection of regional powers are viewed as the security dilemma, and 4. Improving the quality and quantity of armaments development of Southeast Asian countries is made possible and facilitated by the ease in the arms market. While the domestic environment post-cold war weapons impact the dynamics of Southeast Asian countries in terms of: 1. Improving the quality and quantity of armaments development of Southeast Asian countries is made possible and facilitated by the capabilities of the economy, and 2. Improving the quality and quantity of armaments development of Southeast Asian countries caused the development of the local defense industry as a manifestation of the importance of technology transfer to developing countries. To determine the dynamics armament and military posture of Singapore to Indonesia and Malaysia, can be seen through exposure to three key indicators comprising: 1. Expenditure budget military / defense; 2. Development of strength (personnel) of the armed forces, and 3. The dynamics of ownership / acquisition and deployment of the weapon. Spending budget military / defense of a country or group of countries, can be seen through several indicators: 1. Military spending in constant prices, expenses are calculated based on the fixed exchange rate (in this case the U.S. dollar) as a means of currency exchange official between countries; 2. Military spending in the price level walking, expenses are calculated based on the exchange rate of the local currency of each country; 3. Military spending as a proportion of GDP (Gross Domestic Product / GDP) of a country, 4. Military budget was calculated on the basis of proportion per capita (income per capita) of a country. The military budget is the clearest expression of the efforts of the nation to pay for security. Military spending is a commitment or funding organization for the purposes of securing and improving security of the state of the military threat, whether physical (real) or psychological (at the level of perception), internal or external. The use of the military budget of a country usually have a variety of functions following the financial system of each country, but generally allocated to the following: regular budget (salary) active and retired soldiers, buying new weapons, research and development, maintenance and operations, construction and development of infrastructure. The percentage allocation of each budget item, in addition to different each year, is different for each country corresponding financial capacity of each country. Chapter III Threat Perception of Singapore toward Indonesia and Malaysia Threat Perception Singapore As the newly established Singapore continue to seek salvation (survival), regularity (order), and prosperity, it is becoming a very dominant theme of political Singapore. Since I was in the British colonies, these themes are a concern in government policy, and it continued when he decided to join Malaysia in 1963. Threats to the safety of Singapore is still continuing, that when faced with the impact of Indonesias confrontation with Malaysia. To deal with a hostile regional environment (surrounded by a large country with a Muslim majority), Singapore, rapid economic development policies based on a domestic environment conducive designed, and far-reaching to guarantee its sovereignty. Since 1969, Singapore was able to consolidate the independence, stability, and survival until now. This success can not be separated from economic success and the investment community values à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹and quality of educated Singapore (Singapore Meritocracy). With the limitation s imposed by Singapore, both from natural resources, vast territory, and geopolitical position is not favorable due to the strategic location of the event as well as the world struggle for influence, the Singapore government to develop policies Foreign Politics in order to: 1. National Security: The location of the pinched and narrow area which is the dominant factor unfavorable to defense and security. Therefore, Singapore has always wary of Indonesia and Malaysia, where relations between the two countries have not harmonized with Singapore and to anticipate, Singapore developed: the idea of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹the defense pact in Southeast Asia emphasizing terms Southeast Asian countries will not change borders by force and large countries guarantee the security of Southeast Asia, offers a military base for the U.S. military to improve the quality, support ZOPFAN, and still join the British Commonwealth. 2. National Building: National integration is a problem faced by Singapore as a multiethnic population. Singapore to Malaysia and Indonesia stressed that although China is the ethnic majority but Singapore is not China the third country. 3. Economic Survival:    The limitation of natural resources, Singapore relied economic needs of other countries even though such vital water supply from Malaysia. Singapore take advantage of its strategic location as a shipping traffic and world trade by opening a free port and enterport world. In addition, Singapore harness manufacturing industry development as the second pillar economy, which is export-oriented, labor-intensive and capital-intensive. Singapore is highly dependent on the world market and foreign investment to meet the needs of its economy. To that end, Singapore needs to create an atmosphere that is conducive to the smooth flow of investments into the country, especially by establishing a balance of power in Southeast Asia and regional cooperation. Spacious living room becomes very important country in terms of the strategic: for there shall apply strategies to exchange time with space, where the literal meaning is the availability / provision of certain parts of the space occupied by the enemy temporarily, while we prepare for a deadly counterattack, it is only be done if the state space is quite large. But what about Singapore, a country with a narrow then open only one option, namely: Pre-emptive Strike or attack before the enemy is ready. Why is that, in the absence of enough space to prepare for the logistical support (space or area behind), preparation for combat use (space or area of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹communication), and is used to maneuver and hit the enemy (or space combat area) and when viewed in terms of strategy, vast state space to determine the level of security of the citizens (security feeling); meaning as a nation how they react and respond to threats from the outside. It is not surprising tha t the living space can influence or even determine the character of a nation. Even according to Morgenthau nations character is one of the factors that determine the strength and resilience of the nation. Conflicts of Chinesse Overseas Minorities in the Malay Peninsula.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Colonial Southeast Asia has left the term Overseas Chinese, which is still retained. But changes in the political atmosphere of the colonial era to independence has been fundamentally affect the meaning of the term Overseas Chinese is. In the colonial era the term Overseas Chinese referred to all ethnic of China (ie the bloody Chinese) who live outside the country of China and the claimed by the Chinese government as citizens. This claim is recognized byWestern nations who control and dominate Southeast Asia world politics and international law. By definition, it means that in Southeast Asia free term Chinese immigrants should be limited to ethnic Chinese who live outside China and the countries still maintain his Chinese citizenship. But this time the meaning Chinesse Overseas also includes those who have embraced citizenship as citizenship Southeast Asia Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and so on. Ethnic Chinese Malaysia Ethnic Chinese Malaysian Chinese is outside the country to be a citizen or permanent resident of Malaysia. Most of them are descendants of Chinese immigrants who arrived in Malaysia around the 15th century until the mid-20th century. In Malaysia, these people are generally referred to as Chinese in all languages. The term Chinese Malaysian is rather rarely used in this country. Early Chinese immigrants (from the 15th century in Malacca; 18th-century Penang) form a tribe of the Chinese Peranakan or Straits Chinese who converted many indigenous Malays gradually and differently (part of Penang, Malacca comprehensive), Malay , but still embrace origin. In turn, the subsequent arrivals (in the early 19th century) are still practicing traditional Chinese known as sinkheh (new guest). The Chinese in Malaysia practice community identity that is very different from the other, and rarely did intermarry with Malays for religious and cultural reasons. Under Malaysian law, ethnic intermarriage not require the Muslims to embrace her partner. Most Malaysian Chinese consider their chinesse as an ethnic identity, culture and politics. The Chinese dominated Malaysia since Malaysias economy for so long, but since the New Economic Association, introduced by the royal Malaysia to provide equity in the economic life of the country, so that their dominance in the economic life shrinks. Nevertheless, they still form the majority of simple and high-income groups in Malaysia. In 2006, there were 7 to 7.5 million Chinese in Malaysia. Until 2004, they became the richest nation in Malaysia with 40.9 mastery peratus amount of property the state economy. Riots May 13, 1969 in Malaysia May 13 Incident is a term for race riots between Chinese and Malays happened in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia on May 13, 1969 that left at least 184 people died. In 1963, Malaysia suffered from a wealth disparity between the Chinese groups were generally merchants, who controlled most of the Malaysian economy, the poor, the Malay population. In addition, the Chinese also control most of the countrys wealth. Race riots in Singapore in 1964 is also one of the causes of the countrys exit from Malaysia (formerly Singapore was part of Malaysia), and racial tensions continue. Most Malays are not satisfied with the newly independent states that are willing to appease the ethnic Chinese with their spending. On May 10, 1969 elections, the ruling Alliance coalition led by the United Malays National Organization (UMNO) suffered a major defeat. Chinas largest party faction Democratic Action Party and the Movement got the vote, and the right to hold a victory parade through the path that has been set in Kuala Lumpur. However, the march was noisy and rough and deviate from the track and towards the Malay Kampong Bahru district. Although the Movement Party issued an apology the next day, UMNO announced a rival march from Selangor state chief Dato Harun bin Idris in Jalan Raja Muda. Reportedly, the gathering was told that the Malays are heading the procession was attacked by ethnic Chinese in Setapak, several miles north. The angry protesters quickly held a vengeance by killing two passing motorcyclists, and the riot exploded. When riots took place loudspeakers in mosques are used to encourage the rioters to continue their action. Rioters went into effect in the capital Kuala Lumpur and Selango r areas around the country, with the exception of minor disturbances in Malacca elsewhere in the country remains peaceful. National emergency and a curfew was announced on May 16 but reduced curfew in some parts of the country on May 18 and removed within a week in the center of Kuala Lumpur. According to police data, 184 people died and 356 were injured, 753 recorded cases of arson and 211 vehicles were destroyed or severely damaged. Other sources put the number who died around 196 people or even more than 200 people. Some even predicted the death toll reached 700 people as a result of the unrest. Issues of class and race that touches the emotions and sentiments of the main theme throughout the election campaign of 1969 resulted in an increased spirit of the Malays and Chinese in Malaysia. During the 1969 election campaign, candidates and members of political parties, especially from the opposition, raising sensitive issues related to national language (Bahasa Melayu), special position of the Malays (Bumiputera) and the democratic rights of non-Malays. This raises racial sentiment and suspicion. May 13 incident has sparked outrage in neighboring Singapore. Singapore Chinese people who are not happy with what happened to the Chinese Malaysian in Malaysia, began to riot ag ainst the Singapore Malays in Kampong Glam and Chinatown. Street barricades installed by the military to prevent further violence. But casualties are not as high as in Malaysia. Since May 13, 1969 racial riots that almost dragged the neighboring country to civil war raged on, the government took the initiative to create a policy package called the New Economic Association in 1971 aimed at addressing the economic gap between the Malays and Chinese. Policy that many believe has lifted the welfare of the ethnic Malays on one side, but the disadvantage of ethnic Chinese and Indians on the other side. With the governments New Economic Association Malaysia scoring rules requiring 30% stake owned by ethnic Malays, while 40% of non-Malay ethnic destined that included ethnic Chinese and Indians, and the remaining 30% for foreigners. The policy was successfully raised Malays economic downturn. Though slowly, the accumulation of capital in the hands of the Malays rose sharply from just 4% in 1970 to around 20% in 1997. In the education sector is also presented policy priority to ethnic Malays quota to be able to receive education easily in public universities. Although the quota applies only to 2003, no fewer ethnic minority criticized the policy of favoritism. Portion of 40% shareholding for non-ethnic Malays can not be denied is dominated by ethnic Chinese who are already showing its existence in the economy impressively long before Malaysia became independent in 1957. Between 1970 and 1990, the ethnic Chinese shareholdings experienced a significant spike up to 46%. Racial Conflict in Singapore On 16 September 1963, Singapore joined the Federation of Malaya together with Sabah and Sarawak. Political competition in the relationship between the People Action Party (PAP) with the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) of the rules of each party from Singapore and Malaysia have an impact on the history of the two countries today. Racial tensions increased dramatically in recent years when it was triggered by the Barisan Socialist tactics of communal sentiment against the federal government of Singapore and Malaysia. From the facts on the ground, the ethnic Chinese in Singapore felt insulted by the discriminatory treatment by federal policy regarding the actions of the group who agreed to recognize the privileges of the Malays in Article 153 of the Constitution of Malaysia. The policy also provides financial and economic benefits given special treatment to ethnic Malays. Lee Kuan Yew and other political leaders began to struggle for justice and equal treatment of all ethnic groups in Malaysia, with the slogan Malaysian Malaysia. Meanwhile, the Malays in Singapore were incited the federal government accusations that the PAP had committed abuses against ethnic Malays there. The political situation at the external level at that time also began to heat up when President Sukarno of Indonesia declared that free Indonesia confrontation against Malaysia and initiated military attacks and other actions against the new nation, including the bombing of MacDonald House (formerly known as the Hongkong and Shanghai Bank Building) in Singapore on March 10, 1965 by Indonesia, which killed three Marines Singaporeans and also conduct activities to provoke the Malays against ethnic Chinese. The number of race riots that occurred led to the enactment of a curfew to secure areas vulnerable to unrest. One of the worst riots ever happened Ethnic Riots in Singapore is the first occurred in 1964 when the great day of the Prophets Birthday on July 21, 1964, which killed 23 people and injured 400. Three months later, 2 September 1964, the Indonesian army with volunteers from Malaysia raids, targeting Labis, also in the region of Johor, and for 72 hours back a new race riot burn Singapore. During the riots, food prices soared due to turmoil transport system resulting in difficulties in the community. State and federal government are also experiencing economic conflict, UMNO leaders are afraid that if the economic dominance of Singapore would inevitably political power Kuala Lumpur. Although the merger agreement at the beginning made to establish a common market, eliminating trade tariffs, and tackle unemployment, Singapore continued to face trade restrictions imposed Malaysia. In retaliation, Singapore refused to provide full credit for Sabah and Sarawak of the agreements that were made prior to the economic development in the two states. The intensity of the situation increased conversation that did not end as well as speeches and writings that became a widespread issue on both sides. And caused the leaders of UMNO extremists call the Lee Kuan Yew to be detained. After going so much competition in the field of economics and politics in the Federation of Malaya, and rampant racial riots inescapable that has claimed many victims on both sides. Finally, on August 9, 1965, Lee Kuan Yew announced the separation of Singapore from the Federation of Malaya, the decision was taken after Malaysian Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman decided to remove Singapore from the federation because it is an alternative to avoid further bloodshed On the same day, the decision This has also been approved by the Malaysian parliament with the results of voting 126-0 for the separation of Singapore. After the official Singapore separated from the Federation of Malaya, Singapore became an independent republic and sovereign with all the security and social issues that must be faced as the countrys newly established thus reaping a negative response from the international community over the issue. The Orientation of Singaporean Defence The Singapore Armed Forces (The Singapore Armed Forces) consists of three branches of the Army (the Singapore Army), Air Force (the Republic of Singapore Air Force / RSAF) and Navy (the Republic of Singapore Navy / RSN). Singapore Armed Forces to implement the obligation to its citizens to military service as an active army and reserve forces that can be driven more than 300,000 out of 72,500 active armed forces for the defense of the country. Republic of Singapore Air Force (RSAF) as Singapores air defense command, while the Republic of Singapore Navy (RSN) is responsible for the defense of Singapore against the threat of piracy and protection of territorial boundaries. a. History Military Rule of Singapore began its strategic geographic location in which the exploitation of resource assets by foreign colonial natives and residents. Archeological excavations have been recovered from the remains of the port and fortress forms of the pre-colonial era in Singapore. Sir Stamford Raffles, the founder of modern Singapore has chosen Singapore in 1819 to build a new colony with a concentration on security for British interests in the Far East against the Dutch influence. Singapore thus play an active role against the interests of the British military for decades, especially in the years of world war. In 1965 Singapore gained independence, but Singapore has only two infantry regiments at that time commanded by British officers, and was formed by almost all foreigners. A small country surrounded by great neighbors led to Singapore should immediately establish a military force comparable to the countries before, so in the end Singapore secretly contacted Israel to send m ilitary experts to help Singapore build a model of the defense as part of the Force Armament Israel (The Israel Defense Forces). b. Defense Policy Deterrence and diplomacy has been a fundamental principle in Singapores military defense policy, military in recent years Singapore has developed an extensive network with the armed forces of other countries. Currently, Singapore is also increasing concerns about the security of international peace and relief operations, particularly in the security of peace operations in East Timor and the Gulf, and also in the handling of the tsunami catastrophe in the Indian Ocean in 2004, Nias Earthquake in 2005 and Earthquakes in Yogyakarta and Central Java in Indonesia in 2006. Based on the opinion of a military and strategic analyst Tim Huxley in Defending the Lion City, Singapore is known to apply the doctrine of military defense line, military doctrine is the level of military planning between national strategy and unit level planning tactics, techniques and procedures. In a statement to the press, the Ministry of Defence Singapore illustrates that the Singapore Armed Forces is the antidote to attacks from outside forces which prevent the war and if it fails, then quickly secured to achieve victory. c. Defense Total In 1984, the concept of Total Defence was introduced to reinforce the need for all countries, not only in the military field, but also contribute and work together on issues of national defense. Total Defence concept consists of five aspects, namely Military Defence, Civil Defence, Economic Defence, Social Defence, Defence Psychology. d. Army Personnel Strength Population size does not allow Singapore citizens to form a standing army entirely, for which in 1967 introduced the National Service to build a power source in any individual citizen or better known as the draft that can be driven quickly and effectively worth. Today, the armed forces numbered about 32,000 personnel career and coupled with the number 39,800 active military service in the National Service. Number of Main Singapore Armed Forces currently numbers 350,000 or commonly referred to as Operationally-Ready National Servicemen (ORNSmen) while the National Service (NS) is a term military service for all male Singapore citizens and second generation permanent residents who have reached the age of 18. Singapore Armed Forces policy leads nation in which the Malays have the same religion and the nation with the largest neighboring countries namely Malaysia Singapore and Indonesia which have been the source of controversy over the years. Malay people actually excluded from the obligation of military service from the beginning of the draft legislation between 1967 and 1977 and after the policy was issued, and then set out only to serve in the police and civil defense (fire brigade) and not active in the battle. In 1987, Lee Hsien Loong (second Defence Minister) said that if there is a conflict, in which the Singapore Armed Forces are called to defend the homeland, we do not want to put our soldiers in a difficult position where their emotional for the nation against the religion and then in and The Roar of the Lion City (2007), military analyst Sean Walsh claimed that official discrimination against the Malay population remains a nation that is open secret. Singapore Ministry of Defen ce confirmed an instruction to negate Pilot of the Malay race, Command Military and air defense personnel and issuing statements that the proportion of eligible Malays nation selected as a specialist and expert training is comparable to the proportion of non-Malay nation that meets the requirements. in National Service, women in military service, but was discharged after a turn in the position Experts such as assault and combat pilot, while the non-combat instance largely in the logistics in recent years. levels lineup positions available for women who have developed constantly, but still limited, the Singapore Air Force in July 2007 has been inaugurated an exhibition layout light contributed to women in the armed forces. e. National Service National Service was compulsory military service for male citizens who have reached the age of 18 years and this obligation can not be suspended for educational reasons. Full-time national service (NSF) in the first three years of the commission and another two years in office, but was later changed to two years and six months for the army with the rank of Corporal or higher on it, and two years for the post of Lance Corporal or lower underneath. In June 2004 the NSF back shorten the period to two years of compulsory military service for all men who work full time, this is due to changes in population demographics and recruitment of soldiers in each year. During stints at the NSF, the soldiers will be considered to the extent of their preparedness deployed in the field (operationally-ready date) or known as operationally-ready national servicemen (NSmen). Most NSmen to undergo military training in a turnaround time of 10 years military service in the placement of the unit, and then b e on call every year for training, training courses and other physical tests. f. Training All the attacking force must follow a three-month basic training (Basic Military Trainning) at the Basic Military Training Centre, located off the coast of Pulau tekong, or at a specified military units directly. Recruitment is done by a process such as skills courses in the field of battle, in the forest for basic survival, camouflage, individual weapons training operation, and marksmanship. During the training, they are also required to take a skills program and potential positions after which they were placed in Officer Cadambilet School or the School of Infantry Specialists respectively. In the recruitment process have also put them in different units or schools, where they can continue in specialized vocational training. g. Military Education At first, officials commissioned officer rank officers from Singapore after they obtain advanced level A or level of the General Certificate of Education which began in the third training. At the time of the recruitment process has been reduced, the Singapore Armed Forces still criticized the use of the promotion system based more on education and scholarships than proving proficiency graduates. The officers receive initial training at three institutions namely leadership Officer Cadet School (OCS) at the SAFTI Military Institute (SAFTI MI) is a headquarters of the Corps Officer, then as they progress, they can proceed to the formal military education at the SAF Advanced Schools and in the Singapore Command and Staff College are also located in the SAFTI Military Institute (SAFTI MI). An officer is a member of the armed forces, naval or other armed services have a responsibility to the position. Officer Cadet School (OCS) is one of several training bases established in SAFTI Military Institute as a whole where the SAFTI Military Institute is a Singapore military training institution specialized training of officers of the Singapore Armed Forces, one of the Singapore Command and Staff College ( SCSC) which is one of five schools that are owned by officers SAFTI Military Institute. At the same time, the program was first given skill is leadership training at the School of Infantry Specialists (SISPEC) at the headquarters of Sand Gain which is the headquarters of the Warrant Officer and Specialist Corps, then in the following year Platoon Sergeant and Sergeant Major Company receives further instructions of Advanced Specialist Training Wing (ASTW) in SISPEC. School of Infantry Specialists (SISPEC) is a military training center for skills program in the Singapore Armed Forces, based in Pasir Profit is an installation of the Singapore Armed Forces. In most armed forces are in charge of controlling platoon sergeant platoon members, guiding and supporting the command of his platoon in the lead units each. Officer Cadet School (OCS) and the School of Infantry Specialists (SISPEC) has a basic curriculum infantry, especially for the training of the armed forces officers and WOSPECs headed by various training institutions such as the SAF Medical Training Institute (SMTI), Signals Institute (SI), Engineer Training Institute (ETI), Armour Training Institute (ATI), Supply Transport Centre (STC), Ordnance Engineering Training Institute (OETI). h. Defence Foreign Relations Singapore is a member of the Five Power Defence Arrangement with the UK, Australia, New Zealand and Malaysia, FPDA defense is designed to replace the role of English in Singapore and Malaysia, FPDA requires its members to consult on any issues threat to the external defense of the Armed Forces of the Commonwealth which is headquartered in Singapore. FPDA is a series of defense cooperation relationship established under a bilateral agreement between the UK, Australia, New Zealand, Malaysia and Singapore signed in 1971. Singapore has consistently supported full U.S. military presence in the Asia Pacific region. In 1990, the United States and Singapore have signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) to allow the United States Air Force for access to military facilities in Singapore Paya Lebar Airbase and the Sembawang wharf. After signing a memorandum of understanding earlier, the U.S. Navy logistics unit established in Singapore in 1992, and then the attacker aircraft belonging to the United States started flying periodically to Singapore for exercises including U.S. warships. In 1999, a memorandum of understanding containing amended to permit U.S. warships docked at the pier for Changi. The Singapore Armed Forces is also intended for international humanitarian assistance mission that includes the UN peacekeeping force in foreign countries such as Kosovo, Kuwait, and East Timor, including participating in the multinational forces in Iraq, sending four military CH-47 Chinook helicopters and 45 personnel to assist rescue and evacuation of victims of Hurricane Katrina in the United States as well as providing equipment and medicine for the dental health of the people of Afghanistan. Threats toward Singapore Singapore is a small country if the terms of geographical size and its natural resources. Singapores majority ethnic Chinese population is in the neighboring countries whose population is ethnic Malay majority and a much larger geographic size, population, and natural resources so that Singapore has always always be in the region of uncertainty. These conditions will determine Singapores national security concept. Furthermore, Singapores national secu

Macbeths Power Essay -- essays research papers

Throughout reading the play, Macbeth changes a lot from being a man of loyalty and honesty, to a man of whom is power hungry and greedy. This shows how the more power you receive the more power you want; which in many cases, such as this one leads to destruction. Many of the choices that Macbeth made were influenced by the power that he had, and this power began to take over him. This then lead to greed and destruction of not only others, but himself as well.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the beginning of the play, Macbeth is not in a position of authority yet still receives praise. Although Macbeth is not in a place of power, he is truly content with his life. Macbeth is looked up to and admired for begin so brave and courageous. In the beginning of the play Macbeth comes off as a genuine man who is admired by many people. This is demonstrated by a member of Macbeth’s battalion who refers to Macbeth as â€Å"the great Macbeth.† This man is covered in blood and hurt, yet he still speaks of how noble Macbeth is. This really shows how respected and faithful the citizens are to Macbeth. â€Å"For brave Macbeth he is the one to whom oh so many praise.† (1.2.18), said by the man. Hearing this news of Macbeth is very pleasing to the king, he now sees how noble and commendable Macbeth is, he then decided to give Macbeth the power of being Thane of Cawdor; by doing so he did not know what this decision was going to lead to in the fu ture. The king gave him this power because he saw how fine...

Stereotypes and Stereotyping - I Was a Teenage Brain :: Example Personal Narratives

Stereotyping - I Was a Teenage Brain It was a Friday afternoon, and I was waiting for my history class to start. The students sitting around me were talking about a big party that a girl was having that night. A guy sitting across from me turned and asked me if I was going to go to the party. Before I could answer him, he broke in and said that I would probably go home, do my homework and study all night. That Friday is one time I remember very well that being stereotyped as a brain limited what I could do. Just because I was not going to be at the party, it bothered me that my classmates assumed I would be at home studying. His assumption was caused by the characteristics associated with the stereotype of a brain. A brain is a person who does well in school, gets good grades, always has their homework completed and likes to be on top. A brain is usually neat and organized. People wrongly think brains spend all of their time studying and doing homework. They think brains do not care about their appearance and are not involved in athletics. A brain is expected to wear thick glasses held together with tape, wear a pocket protector, be skinny and zit-faced and always have a calculator. A brain is usually associated with not being well dressed and being unattractive. Television and movies have helped contribute to this unattractive picture of a brain. Some examples are Screech from Saved by the Bell, Carol from Growing Pains and Steve Urkel from Family Matters. I think the reason that people have placed me in the stereotype of a brain is because I have done well in all of my classes throughout school. I like to learn new things, and school is not very difficult for me. I always hated to get a test back because my classmates would ask what I received on the test. When I showed them my "A," I knew they resented that I had received a better grade than they did. They did not understand that I had to work hard to earn the "A." Because of my good grades, I am stereotyped as a brain.

How the Aviation Industry Is Affected by the Economy

Airports are vital international resources. They play a key role in transportation of people and goods. And in regional, national and international commerce. They are where the nation’s aviation system connects with other modes of transportation and where federal responsibility for managing and regulating air traffic operation meet with the role of state and local governments that own and operate most airports. This paper reviews how oil prices affect the airline economy and views the extent to which the economies and developing countries remain vulnerable to a long period of higher oil prices. I have chosen this topic because the airline industry in the economy of any country plays a very important role. Today’s airlines face many long standing problems. The historical trends show the true story of what is happening in the airline industry. There are many factors that contribute to these problems and Increase in fuel rates/cost is one of them. The value of a barrel of oil has a direct impact on airliners within the World’s aviation industry, at the present moment the price of a barrel of Oil has held at about â€Å"$89 a barrel†, this figure however, is very unstable. To emphasize further, in mid July 2006 a barrel of oil had broken the â€Å"$78 mark† and has since stabilized, the long term issues however, suggest the value of oil could rise even further which can of course have cost complications for airliners. With the current political disputes in Eastern Europe and the unrest in the Middle East, the cost of oil is likely to rise, as is the unstable nature of this resource and industry in general. According to the latest statistics from the General Aviation Bureau, due to the fuel price surge, the cost of fuel has accounted to 41% of the cost of major business of airline companies. The whole airline industry has an additional cost expenditure of 1. 27 billion. Why does the airline industry which is always sensitive to price change take no action this time? The South-west Airline Company said â€Å"if we raised the ticket price at this time the passengers would scare away†. Several transportation companies also mention that the domestic transportation is steady but not rising, and it would be further overwhelmed if the airline raised prices now. Therefore under the present condition of fuel price surge, the airline should lessen costs through management strengthening, cost lowering and efficiency improving, but not simply raise the price. Passenger carriers have reported over $10 billion in 2005 net losses. Industry debt now exceeds $100 billion, while the industry’s $15 billion total market profit continues to decline. Our ability to borrow to support continuing losses is lessening. The few airlines that have been able to achieve a profit are doing so under tremendous difficulty. The reasons for the dangerous condition of the industry are clear. Profit has declined dramatically following the 9/11 attack on America. Although carriers are aggressively reducing costs where possible, stubbornly high fuel prices and escalating security and insurance costs, among other things, have combined with a particular vengeance in an under-performing economy. The industry has already achieved annual savings of over $10 billion in capital and operating expenses. Issues such as fuel prices, however, are obviously beyond our ability to battle alone The industry was suffering from the softening economy in early 2001. The events of 9/11, however, drove losses that year to $7. 7 billion, despite the $5 billion in government compensation for the costs of the terrorist shutdown of our aviation system. A few years back the picture darkened when despite industry cutbacks in spending, losses topped $10 billion. And analysts predict that the industry will lose another $2 to 4 billion this year, meaning that airlines are on target to lose about $25 billion in the 2008 to 2013 period. Increases in fuel prices affect the airlines in two ways; the cost of fuel has an obvious and direct impact on the cost of operation, and fuel cost increases have repeatedly triggered economic recessions, which in turn result in a decline in demand for air travel and air cargo. Fuel price increases have a negative impact on airlines because even in good time fuel costs account for roughly 10-12% of our operating expense. Every penny increase in the price of jet fuel costs the airline industry $180 million a year. In the absence of pricing power – the ability to pass these costs along in the form of higher airfares – these increases come right off the bottom line. An even more hurtful aspect of the fuel price increase is the relationship between the economy and air travel. The link between fuel prices and the health of the economy is clear. Three of the major recessions of the past thirty years can, in large measure, be attributed to the steep increases in fuel prices that accompanied the 1973 Middle East oil embargo, the 1980 Iran Crisis, and the1990-91 Gulf War. The airline industry is undeniably tied to the overall economy – even minor recessions result in reduced demand and increased sensitivity to prices for leisure as well as business travelers. Past fuel spikes and attendant recessions have brought about widespread hardship in the airline industry. As analysis shows, airline profitability suffers as a direct consequence of a weakening economy. During the first Gulf War, almost half of the major airlines filed for protection under Chapter 11 of the Bankruptcy Code, long-standing airlines went out of business, more than 100,000 airline employees lost jobs, and the industry went into a financial tailspin from which it took years to recover. We all have much at stake – it is not simply a matter of airline finances; it is the national economy. Civil aviation has a profound impact on the U. S. economy. A recently completed analysis found that in calendar 2009:  · Civil aviation’s total impact on the U. S. economy amounted to 9% of GDP. $343 billion and 4. 2 million jobs were produced in civil aviation or in industries related to civil aviation such as travel and tourism.  · Combined direct, indirect, and induced economic impact of civil aviation totaled $904 billion and 11. 2 million jobs. Without question, the financial situation of the airlines has had a negative effect on the U. S. economy. Of the jobs lost in the United States since 9/11, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics – nearly half have been in the travel and tourism sector. As airline pain spreads, communities across the country are dramatically affected. Forced contraction in the industry means less service or no service to some communities, increasingly isolating them from the economic mainstream. The airlines are doing everything they can to conserve fuel. Throughout the history of commercial aviation, airlines have insisted upon the most fuel-efficient aircraft possible and have worked with airframe and engine manufacturers to reduce fuel consumption. In fact, our fuel conservation efforts have resulted in a fuel consumption rate of almost 40 passenger miles per gallon in today’s aircraft – a rate that compares favorably with the most fuel-efficient automobiles. Changes in cruise speed, use of flight simulators, sophisticated flight planning systems, increasing load factors and the introduction of newer, more aerodynamic aircraft designs combined with modern engine technology, are all recent success stories. Airlines continue to look at every possible facet of their operations to further improve fuel efficiency through measures like taxiing on one engine, delaying startup and push back, removing all discretionary eight, and using ground power instead of on-board auxiliary power units while at the gate. These and similar measures are increasingly being used where commensurate with safety considerations to save fuel and, not incidentally, to reduce emissions. However, as of today our options for further dramatic improvements on the order of what we have been able to achieve over the past few decades are limited; leaving not only the aviation industry vulnerable but also all other services dependant upon air travel for a profitable living.